Practical Wastewater Treatment
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Practical Wastewater Treatment
Russell, David L.
John Wiley & Sons Inc
05/2019
480
Dura
Inglês
9781119100850
15 a 20 dias
852
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Acknowledgments xvii
Preface xix
1 Composition, Chemistry, and Regulatory Framework 1
1.1 Water Composition 1
1.2 Water Characteristics and Physical Properties 2
1.2.1 Solubility of Gases in Water 4
1.2.1.1 Nitrogen 4
1.2.2 Henry's Law 6
1.3 Solution Chemistry: Salts and Ions in Water 10
1.4 Disassociation Constants for Weak Acid and Bases 12
1.4.1 Common Minerals Dissolved in Freshwater and Seawater 15
1.5 Sources of Water 16
1.5.1 Groundwater 16
1.5.2 Groundwater Quality 17
1.5.3 Other Principal Contaminants in Groundwater 18
1.5.4 Movement of Groundwater 19
1.6 Analytical Methods 19
1.7 Laboratory Guidance 22
1.8 Regulatory Framework of Water Regulations 24
1.8.1 What Is Quality Water? 24
1.8.2 Water Quality Standards 25
1.8.3 Water Quality Standards in the United States 26
1.8.4 Establishing Water Quality Standards 26
1.8.5 Effluent Standards and Guidance 26
1.8.6 Mixing Zones 27
1.8.7 Discharge Permits 28
1.8.8 US Penalty Policies - Enforcement of Permit Conditions 28
1.8.9 Water Quality Discharge Basics in the US 29
1.8.10 How Water Quality Standards Are Established 32
1.8.11 UK Water Effluent Quality Standard 37
1.8.12 EU Water Quality Standards and Effluent Limits 39
1.8.13 Other Water Quality Requirements 40
1.8.13.1 US Primary and Secondary Drinking Water Standards 40
1.8.13.2 WHO Drinking Water Quality Guidelines 43
1.8.13.3 EU Drinking Water Directives 43
1.8.13.4 UK Drinking Water Standards 43
1.9 Water Use Data and Some Discharge Characteristics 43
1.9.1 Water Use by Municipalities 45
1.9.2 Agricultural Water 47
1.9.3 Cooling Water 47
1.9.4 Boiler Water 48
1.9.5 Other Industrial Water Quality Requirements 49
1.9.5.1 Steel Industry 50
1.9.5.2 Paper Industry 50
1.9.5.3 Petrochemical Industry 50
1.9.5.4 Petroleum Exploration and Production Operations 51
Notes 52
2 What is Water Pollution? 59
2.1 Pollution Defined 59
2.2 Chemical Industry 60
2.3 Cooling Towers 63
2.4 Boilers 64
2.5 Iron and Steel Industry 66
2.6 Mining Industries 67
2.7 Fracking for Oil and Gas 68
2.8 Petroleum Exploration 71
2.9 Petroleum Refining 73
2.10 Agricultural and Food Processing 75
2.11 Crop Water Use 75
2.12 Vegetable and Fruit Processing 76
2.13 Animal Farming and Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations 77
2.14 Livestock and Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations 78
2.15 Slaughterhouse and Meat Packing and Processing Wastes 82
2.16 Dairy Wastes 83
2.17 Measuring Pollution 83
2.18 The Sampling Plan 85
2.19 Analytical Methods and the Role of the Laboratory 87
2.19.1 The Analytical Plan 90
2.19.2 The Effects of Pollution on the Environment 90
2.19.3 Oxygen Depletion - Biochemical Oxygen Demand 91
2.19.4 Oxygen Uptake in a Stream -The Oxygen Sag Equation 93
2.19.5 Biology of Polluted Water 95
2.19.6 Nitrogen 96
2.19.7 Phosphorus 97
Notes 98
3 Groundwater and its Treatment 103
3.1 Hydraulics of Groundwater 104
3.2 Soil Particles and Surface Areas 106
3.3 Well Hydraulics 107
3.4 Well Packing and Screens 109
3.5 Trenches 109
3.5.1 Orifices and Pipe Losses 111
3.6 Compressible Flow 113
3.6.1 Calculation of Expansion Factor 114
3.6.2 Groundwater Hydraulics 115
3.7 Groundwater Treatment 117
Notes 123
4 Statistics of Measurements 125
4.1 Introduction to Statistical Measurements: Background 125
4.2 Significant Figures 126
4.3 Probable Error 127
4.4 Repeat Measurements 128
4.5 Net Process Measurements 129
4.5.1 Calibration 129
4.5.2 How to Measure Your Flow Accurately 130
4.5.2.1 Gurley Current Meter 130
4.6 Statistical Distributions for Environmental Events 133
4.6.1 Weibull Distributions 134
4.7 Black Swans and Data Analysis 135
4.7.1 Black Swans 135
4.7.2 Data Analysis 136
4.7.3 Outliers 136
Notes 137
5 The Flow of Water and Wastewater 139
5.1 Statistical Basis for Error Estimation 139
5.2 Open Channel Hydraulics 140
5.3 Froude Number 147
5.4 Types of Flowmeters 150
5.5 Weir Plates 155
5.6 Alignment Errors 156
5.7 Samples and Sampling 158
5.8 Conclusion 161
Notes 161
6 Troubleshooting and Emergency Planning 163
6.1 Fault Tree Analysis 163
6.2 Reverse Fault Tree Analysis 166
6.2.1 Bow Tie Analysis 166
6.3 Analysis: The Five Whys 168
6.4 Regulatory Requirements 169
6.5 Software Solutions 169
6.6 Emergency Response Planning 170
Notes 170
7 Chemistry and Analyses 173
7.1 Aquatic Testing 173
7.2 Bacterial Testing 174
7.3 Dissolved Organic Materials - BOD, COD, and TOC 175
7.3.1 BOD vs ThOD 179
7.3.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand 181
7.3.3 TOC 183
7.4 Common Ion Species 183
7.4.1 Most Important Chemicals in the Water Environment 185
7.4.2 pH 185
7.4.3 Carbonate Chemistry 186
7.4.4 Alkalinity 186
7.5 Hardness 189
7.6 Chemical Water Softening 192
7.6.1 Excess Lime Process 193
7.7 Nitrogen 194
7.8 Phosphorus 197
7.9 Sulfur 198
7.10 Chlorine 198
7.11 Other Halogens 199
7.12 Metals 199
7.13 Solids 201
7.14 Organic Chemicals 205
Notes 206
8 Basic Water and Wastewater Treatment Techniques 209
8.1 Removal of Metals 209
8.2 Chromium 211
8.2.1 Other Chromium Reduction Reactions 212
8.3 Arsenic 213
8.4 Cadmium 213
8.5 Iron 214
8.6 Zinc 214
8.7 Mercury 214
8.8 Radium 215
8.9 Anions 218
8.9.1 Cyanide 218
8.9.2 Nitrates and Nitrites 219
8.10 Solvents and Oils 220
8.11 Chlorinated Organics 221
8.11.1 PCBs 222
8.11.2 DDT 223
Notes 225
9 Biological Wastewater Treatment 227
9.1 The Microbial World 227
9.2 Order of Treatment 233
9.3 Types of Organisms 234
9.4 Chemistry and Activated Sludge 238
9.5 Growth Conditions and Nitrification 239
9.6 Denitrification and Phosphate Removal 240
9.7 Biological Growth Equation 241
9.7.1 The Monod Equation 242
9.7.2 Microbial Decay 243
9.7.3 Effect of Temperature and pH on Rate of Reactions 245
9.8 Principles of Biological Treatment Systems 245
9.9 Activated Sludge and its Variations 248
9.10 Substrate Removal Definitions 250
9.11 Trickling Filters and Variations 252
9.12 Clarification for Biological Removals 254
9.13 Other Solids Removals 255
9.14 Biological Synthesis and Oxidation 255
9.15 Biological Treatment of Toxic Wastes 257
9.16 Modeling the Biological Process 257
9.16.1 Modeling Notes Before One Starts 258
9.16.2 Free Wastewater Treatment Modeling Platforms 261
9.16.2.1 SSSP 261
9.16.2.2 STEADY 261
9.16.2.3 JASS 262
9.16.2.4 Stoat 262
9.16.3 Commercially Available Modeling Tools 263
9.16.3.1 GPSX 263
9.16.3.2 SUMO 264
9.16.3.3 SIMBA 265
9.16.3.4 Biowin 267
9.16.3.5 WEST 268
9.16.4 Modeling Summary 268
Notes 270
10 Anaerobic Treatment 273
10.1 Basic Anaerobic Processes for Wastewater 273
10.2 Phosphorus Removal 275
10.3 Basic Anaerobic Processes for Digestion and Treatment 276
10.4 Anaerobic Pretreatment 278
10.5 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactors 281
10.6 Other Digester Configurations 283
10.7 Siloxane Removals 283
10.8 Sludge Digestion 284
10.9 Gas Production Emphasis 286
10.10 New Technologies 287
10.11 Sludge Treatment 288
10.12 Anaerobic Digester Model ADM1 288
10.13 Struvite and Anaerobic Processes 289
Notes 290
11 Precipitation and Sedimentation 293
11.1 Theory of Sedimentation 293
11.2 Clarifiers and their Design 294
11.2.1 Bulk Velocity - Surface Loading Rate 294
11.2.2 Hydraulic Detention Time 296
11.3 Lamellas and Specialty Devices 298
11.3.1 Lamellas 298
11.3.2 Membrane Filters 299
Note 301
12 Granular Filtration Theory and Practice 303
12.1 Granular Media Filtration 303
12.1.1 Sizing of Filters by Flow Rate 303
12.1.2 Uniformity Coefficient and Effective Grain Size 306
12.2 Filtration Hydraulics 306
12.3 Particle Size Removals 307
12.4 Backwash Hydraulics 307
12.4.1 Use of Air in the Backwash of Granular Filtration Systems 310
Notes 312
13 Skin Filtration 313
13.1 Introduction 313
13.2 Microstrainers and Screens 313
13.3 Belt Filters 316
13.4 Plate and Frame Filters 316
13.5 Cloth vs. Paper Filters 319
13.6 Precoat 320
13.7 Head Loss Through Cloth Filters 322
13.8 Bag Filters 323
Notes 324
14 Membrane Filters and Reverse Osmosis 325
14.1 Introduction 325
14.2 Design Values 330
14.3 Process Selection 330
14.3.1 Ultrafiltration Membrane Selection 330
14.3.2 Cellulose Acetate Membranes 331
14.3.3 Polysulfone Membranes 331
14.3.4 Polyamide Membranes 331
14.3.5 Polyacrylonitrile Membranes 331
14.3.6 Ultrafiltration Modules 332
14.4 Reverse Osmosis 333
14.5 Mass Transfer Theory 333
14.6 Membrane Design Software 334
14.7 Membrane Materials 336
14.8 Membrane Configurations 337
14.9 RO Design Considerations 338
14.9.1 Feedwater Supply Considerations 338
14.9.2 Pressure Pumping 338
14.9.3 Membrane Considerations 341
14.9.4 Post-treatment 341
14.10 Design Parameters 341
Notes 344
15 Disinfection 347
15.1 Introduction 347
15.2 Rate of Kill - Disinfection Parameters 347
15.2.1 Chick's Law 347
15.2.2 Harmful Organisms 348
15.3 Chlorine 353
15.3.1 Ammonia, Chlorine, and Chloramines 354
15.3.2 Other Types of Chlorine 355
15.3.3 Other Reactions with Chlorine 355
15.3.4 Chlorine Safety 355
15.3.5 Chlorine Dioxide 356
15.4 Ozone 357
15.5 Ultraviolet Light 358
15.5.1 LED Lighting 360
15.6 Other Disinfecting Compounds 360
15.6.1 Potassium Permanganate 360
15.6.2 Hydrogen Peroxide and Ozone 361
15.6.3 PAA: Peracetic Acid 362
15.6.4 Bromine 364
15.6.5 Iodine 365
15.6.5.1 Types of Iodinators 365
15.6.5.2 Careful Use of Iodine 365
15.7 Disinfection by Ultra Filtration 366
Notes 367
16 Phosphorus and Nitrogen Removal 369
16.1 General 369
16.2 BardenPho (c) Processes 373
16.3 Chemical Phosphorus Removal 375
16.4 Nitrogen Removal 378
16.4.1 Nitrogen Chemistry and Forms 378
16.4.2 Ammonia 378
16.4.3 Nitrate 379
16.4.4 Nitrification 379
16.4.4.1 Ammonia Stripping 388
16.4.4.2 Ion Exchange 390
16.5 Conclusions 392
Notes 392
17 Carbon Adsorption 395
17.1 Introduction 395
17.2 The Freundlich and Langmuir Equations 396
17.3 Carbon Adsorption Physical Coefficients and Economics 397
17.4 Other Considerations 397
17.4.1 Carbon Regeneration 397
17.4.2 The PACTTM Process 397
17.4.3 Wet Air Regeneration for PACT Systems 398
Note 401
18 Ion Exchange 403
18.1 Resins 403
18.2 Physical Characteristics 403
18.3 Chemical Structure 404
18.3.1 Selectivity 404
18.3.2 Selectivity Coefficient 405
18.4 Design Considerations 406
18.4.1 Pretreatment 406
19 Dissolved Air Flotation and Techniques 409
19.1 Design Basics for DAF 409
19.2 Operating Parameters 410
19.3 Theory and Design 411
19.4 Ranges of Data 412
19.5 Electroflotation 413
19.5.1 Electroflotation Theory and Design 414
19.6 Electrocoagulation 415
Notes 416
20 Coagulation, Flocculation and Chemical Treatment 419
20.1 Introduction 419
20.2 Sols 421
20.3 Flocculation and Mixing 422
20.4 Practice 423
20.5 Modeling 424
Notes 424
21 Heat Transfer Processes: Boilers, Heat Exchangers and Cooling Towers 425
21.1 Boilers 425
21.2 Boiler Classifications 426
21.2.1 Fire Tube Boilers 426
21.2.2 Water Tube Boilers 426
21.3 Boiler Water Quality Requirements 427
21.4 Cooling Towers 430
Notes 431
22 Evaluating an Existing Wastewater Treatment Plant Design using Modeling Software 433
22.1 Step 1: Information Gathering 433
22.2 Step 2: Model Selection 435
22.3 Step 3: Laboratory and Other Data Organization 438
22.3.1 Generating the Flows Without the Data 439
22.3.2 Getting the Hydraulics and the Tankage Correct 440
22.3.2.1 When You Cannot Dye-test Your Tanks - a Procedure 441
22.4 Step 4: Flow Sheet Setup and Model Organization 443
22.5 Step 5: Model Compilation and Setup 444
22.5.1 Initial Values versus Derived Values 445
22.5.2 Integrator Settings 445
22.6 Step 6: Input and Output File Preparation 445
22.7 Step 7: Initialization of the Model Parameters and First Runs 445
22.7.1 What to Balance or Adjust 446
22.7.2 What to Key in on During Your Modeling 446
22.8 Step 8: Parameter Adjustments 446
Notes 447
Index 449
Preface xix
1 Composition, Chemistry, and Regulatory Framework 1
1.1 Water Composition 1
1.2 Water Characteristics and Physical Properties 2
1.2.1 Solubility of Gases in Water 4
1.2.1.1 Nitrogen 4
1.2.2 Henry's Law 6
1.3 Solution Chemistry: Salts and Ions in Water 10
1.4 Disassociation Constants for Weak Acid and Bases 12
1.4.1 Common Minerals Dissolved in Freshwater and Seawater 15
1.5 Sources of Water 16
1.5.1 Groundwater 16
1.5.2 Groundwater Quality 17
1.5.3 Other Principal Contaminants in Groundwater 18
1.5.4 Movement of Groundwater 19
1.6 Analytical Methods 19
1.7 Laboratory Guidance 22
1.8 Regulatory Framework of Water Regulations 24
1.8.1 What Is Quality Water? 24
1.8.2 Water Quality Standards 25
1.8.3 Water Quality Standards in the United States 26
1.8.4 Establishing Water Quality Standards 26
1.8.5 Effluent Standards and Guidance 26
1.8.6 Mixing Zones 27
1.8.7 Discharge Permits 28
1.8.8 US Penalty Policies - Enforcement of Permit Conditions 28
1.8.9 Water Quality Discharge Basics in the US 29
1.8.10 How Water Quality Standards Are Established 32
1.8.11 UK Water Effluent Quality Standard 37
1.8.12 EU Water Quality Standards and Effluent Limits 39
1.8.13 Other Water Quality Requirements 40
1.8.13.1 US Primary and Secondary Drinking Water Standards 40
1.8.13.2 WHO Drinking Water Quality Guidelines 43
1.8.13.3 EU Drinking Water Directives 43
1.8.13.4 UK Drinking Water Standards 43
1.9 Water Use Data and Some Discharge Characteristics 43
1.9.1 Water Use by Municipalities 45
1.9.2 Agricultural Water 47
1.9.3 Cooling Water 47
1.9.4 Boiler Water 48
1.9.5 Other Industrial Water Quality Requirements 49
1.9.5.1 Steel Industry 50
1.9.5.2 Paper Industry 50
1.9.5.3 Petrochemical Industry 50
1.9.5.4 Petroleum Exploration and Production Operations 51
Notes 52
2 What is Water Pollution? 59
2.1 Pollution Defined 59
2.2 Chemical Industry 60
2.3 Cooling Towers 63
2.4 Boilers 64
2.5 Iron and Steel Industry 66
2.6 Mining Industries 67
2.7 Fracking for Oil and Gas 68
2.8 Petroleum Exploration 71
2.9 Petroleum Refining 73
2.10 Agricultural and Food Processing 75
2.11 Crop Water Use 75
2.12 Vegetable and Fruit Processing 76
2.13 Animal Farming and Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations 77
2.14 Livestock and Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations 78
2.15 Slaughterhouse and Meat Packing and Processing Wastes 82
2.16 Dairy Wastes 83
2.17 Measuring Pollution 83
2.18 The Sampling Plan 85
2.19 Analytical Methods and the Role of the Laboratory 87
2.19.1 The Analytical Plan 90
2.19.2 The Effects of Pollution on the Environment 90
2.19.3 Oxygen Depletion - Biochemical Oxygen Demand 91
2.19.4 Oxygen Uptake in a Stream -The Oxygen Sag Equation 93
2.19.5 Biology of Polluted Water 95
2.19.6 Nitrogen 96
2.19.7 Phosphorus 97
Notes 98
3 Groundwater and its Treatment 103
3.1 Hydraulics of Groundwater 104
3.2 Soil Particles and Surface Areas 106
3.3 Well Hydraulics 107
3.4 Well Packing and Screens 109
3.5 Trenches 109
3.5.1 Orifices and Pipe Losses 111
3.6 Compressible Flow 113
3.6.1 Calculation of Expansion Factor 114
3.6.2 Groundwater Hydraulics 115
3.7 Groundwater Treatment 117
Notes 123
4 Statistics of Measurements 125
4.1 Introduction to Statistical Measurements: Background 125
4.2 Significant Figures 126
4.3 Probable Error 127
4.4 Repeat Measurements 128
4.5 Net Process Measurements 129
4.5.1 Calibration 129
4.5.2 How to Measure Your Flow Accurately 130
4.5.2.1 Gurley Current Meter 130
4.6 Statistical Distributions for Environmental Events 133
4.6.1 Weibull Distributions 134
4.7 Black Swans and Data Analysis 135
4.7.1 Black Swans 135
4.7.2 Data Analysis 136
4.7.3 Outliers 136
Notes 137
5 The Flow of Water and Wastewater 139
5.1 Statistical Basis for Error Estimation 139
5.2 Open Channel Hydraulics 140
5.3 Froude Number 147
5.4 Types of Flowmeters 150
5.5 Weir Plates 155
5.6 Alignment Errors 156
5.7 Samples and Sampling 158
5.8 Conclusion 161
Notes 161
6 Troubleshooting and Emergency Planning 163
6.1 Fault Tree Analysis 163
6.2 Reverse Fault Tree Analysis 166
6.2.1 Bow Tie Analysis 166
6.3 Analysis: The Five Whys 168
6.4 Regulatory Requirements 169
6.5 Software Solutions 169
6.6 Emergency Response Planning 170
Notes 170
7 Chemistry and Analyses 173
7.1 Aquatic Testing 173
7.2 Bacterial Testing 174
7.3 Dissolved Organic Materials - BOD, COD, and TOC 175
7.3.1 BOD vs ThOD 179
7.3.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand 181
7.3.3 TOC 183
7.4 Common Ion Species 183
7.4.1 Most Important Chemicals in the Water Environment 185
7.4.2 pH 185
7.4.3 Carbonate Chemistry 186
7.4.4 Alkalinity 186
7.5 Hardness 189
7.6 Chemical Water Softening 192
7.6.1 Excess Lime Process 193
7.7 Nitrogen 194
7.8 Phosphorus 197
7.9 Sulfur 198
7.10 Chlorine 198
7.11 Other Halogens 199
7.12 Metals 199
7.13 Solids 201
7.14 Organic Chemicals 205
Notes 206
8 Basic Water and Wastewater Treatment Techniques 209
8.1 Removal of Metals 209
8.2 Chromium 211
8.2.1 Other Chromium Reduction Reactions 212
8.3 Arsenic 213
8.4 Cadmium 213
8.5 Iron 214
8.6 Zinc 214
8.7 Mercury 214
8.8 Radium 215
8.9 Anions 218
8.9.1 Cyanide 218
8.9.2 Nitrates and Nitrites 219
8.10 Solvents and Oils 220
8.11 Chlorinated Organics 221
8.11.1 PCBs 222
8.11.2 DDT 223
Notes 225
9 Biological Wastewater Treatment 227
9.1 The Microbial World 227
9.2 Order of Treatment 233
9.3 Types of Organisms 234
9.4 Chemistry and Activated Sludge 238
9.5 Growth Conditions and Nitrification 239
9.6 Denitrification and Phosphate Removal 240
9.7 Biological Growth Equation 241
9.7.1 The Monod Equation 242
9.7.2 Microbial Decay 243
9.7.3 Effect of Temperature and pH on Rate of Reactions 245
9.8 Principles of Biological Treatment Systems 245
9.9 Activated Sludge and its Variations 248
9.10 Substrate Removal Definitions 250
9.11 Trickling Filters and Variations 252
9.12 Clarification for Biological Removals 254
9.13 Other Solids Removals 255
9.14 Biological Synthesis and Oxidation 255
9.15 Biological Treatment of Toxic Wastes 257
9.16 Modeling the Biological Process 257
9.16.1 Modeling Notes Before One Starts 258
9.16.2 Free Wastewater Treatment Modeling Platforms 261
9.16.2.1 SSSP 261
9.16.2.2 STEADY 261
9.16.2.3 JASS 262
9.16.2.4 Stoat 262
9.16.3 Commercially Available Modeling Tools 263
9.16.3.1 GPSX 263
9.16.3.2 SUMO 264
9.16.3.3 SIMBA 265
9.16.3.4 Biowin 267
9.16.3.5 WEST 268
9.16.4 Modeling Summary 268
Notes 270
10 Anaerobic Treatment 273
10.1 Basic Anaerobic Processes for Wastewater 273
10.2 Phosphorus Removal 275
10.3 Basic Anaerobic Processes for Digestion and Treatment 276
10.4 Anaerobic Pretreatment 278
10.5 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactors 281
10.6 Other Digester Configurations 283
10.7 Siloxane Removals 283
10.8 Sludge Digestion 284
10.9 Gas Production Emphasis 286
10.10 New Technologies 287
10.11 Sludge Treatment 288
10.12 Anaerobic Digester Model ADM1 288
10.13 Struvite and Anaerobic Processes 289
Notes 290
11 Precipitation and Sedimentation 293
11.1 Theory of Sedimentation 293
11.2 Clarifiers and their Design 294
11.2.1 Bulk Velocity - Surface Loading Rate 294
11.2.2 Hydraulic Detention Time 296
11.3 Lamellas and Specialty Devices 298
11.3.1 Lamellas 298
11.3.2 Membrane Filters 299
Note 301
12 Granular Filtration Theory and Practice 303
12.1 Granular Media Filtration 303
12.1.1 Sizing of Filters by Flow Rate 303
12.1.2 Uniformity Coefficient and Effective Grain Size 306
12.2 Filtration Hydraulics 306
12.3 Particle Size Removals 307
12.4 Backwash Hydraulics 307
12.4.1 Use of Air in the Backwash of Granular Filtration Systems 310
Notes 312
13 Skin Filtration 313
13.1 Introduction 313
13.2 Microstrainers and Screens 313
13.3 Belt Filters 316
13.4 Plate and Frame Filters 316
13.5 Cloth vs. Paper Filters 319
13.6 Precoat 320
13.7 Head Loss Through Cloth Filters 322
13.8 Bag Filters 323
Notes 324
14 Membrane Filters and Reverse Osmosis 325
14.1 Introduction 325
14.2 Design Values 330
14.3 Process Selection 330
14.3.1 Ultrafiltration Membrane Selection 330
14.3.2 Cellulose Acetate Membranes 331
14.3.3 Polysulfone Membranes 331
14.3.4 Polyamide Membranes 331
14.3.5 Polyacrylonitrile Membranes 331
14.3.6 Ultrafiltration Modules 332
14.4 Reverse Osmosis 333
14.5 Mass Transfer Theory 333
14.6 Membrane Design Software 334
14.7 Membrane Materials 336
14.8 Membrane Configurations 337
14.9 RO Design Considerations 338
14.9.1 Feedwater Supply Considerations 338
14.9.2 Pressure Pumping 338
14.9.3 Membrane Considerations 341
14.9.4 Post-treatment 341
14.10 Design Parameters 341
Notes 344
15 Disinfection 347
15.1 Introduction 347
15.2 Rate of Kill - Disinfection Parameters 347
15.2.1 Chick's Law 347
15.2.2 Harmful Organisms 348
15.3 Chlorine 353
15.3.1 Ammonia, Chlorine, and Chloramines 354
15.3.2 Other Types of Chlorine 355
15.3.3 Other Reactions with Chlorine 355
15.3.4 Chlorine Safety 355
15.3.5 Chlorine Dioxide 356
15.4 Ozone 357
15.5 Ultraviolet Light 358
15.5.1 LED Lighting 360
15.6 Other Disinfecting Compounds 360
15.6.1 Potassium Permanganate 360
15.6.2 Hydrogen Peroxide and Ozone 361
15.6.3 PAA: Peracetic Acid 362
15.6.4 Bromine 364
15.6.5 Iodine 365
15.6.5.1 Types of Iodinators 365
15.6.5.2 Careful Use of Iodine 365
15.7 Disinfection by Ultra Filtration 366
Notes 367
16 Phosphorus and Nitrogen Removal 369
16.1 General 369
16.2 BardenPho (c) Processes 373
16.3 Chemical Phosphorus Removal 375
16.4 Nitrogen Removal 378
16.4.1 Nitrogen Chemistry and Forms 378
16.4.2 Ammonia 378
16.4.3 Nitrate 379
16.4.4 Nitrification 379
16.4.4.1 Ammonia Stripping 388
16.4.4.2 Ion Exchange 390
16.5 Conclusions 392
Notes 392
17 Carbon Adsorption 395
17.1 Introduction 395
17.2 The Freundlich and Langmuir Equations 396
17.3 Carbon Adsorption Physical Coefficients and Economics 397
17.4 Other Considerations 397
17.4.1 Carbon Regeneration 397
17.4.2 The PACTTM Process 397
17.4.3 Wet Air Regeneration for PACT Systems 398
Note 401
18 Ion Exchange 403
18.1 Resins 403
18.2 Physical Characteristics 403
18.3 Chemical Structure 404
18.3.1 Selectivity 404
18.3.2 Selectivity Coefficient 405
18.4 Design Considerations 406
18.4.1 Pretreatment 406
19 Dissolved Air Flotation and Techniques 409
19.1 Design Basics for DAF 409
19.2 Operating Parameters 410
19.3 Theory and Design 411
19.4 Ranges of Data 412
19.5 Electroflotation 413
19.5.1 Electroflotation Theory and Design 414
19.6 Electrocoagulation 415
Notes 416
20 Coagulation, Flocculation and Chemical Treatment 419
20.1 Introduction 419
20.2 Sols 421
20.3 Flocculation and Mixing 422
20.4 Practice 423
20.5 Modeling 424
Notes 424
21 Heat Transfer Processes: Boilers, Heat Exchangers and Cooling Towers 425
21.1 Boilers 425
21.2 Boiler Classifications 426
21.2.1 Fire Tube Boilers 426
21.2.2 Water Tube Boilers 426
21.3 Boiler Water Quality Requirements 427
21.4 Cooling Towers 430
Notes 431
22 Evaluating an Existing Wastewater Treatment Plant Design using Modeling Software 433
22.1 Step 1: Information Gathering 433
22.2 Step 2: Model Selection 435
22.3 Step 3: Laboratory and Other Data Organization 438
22.3.1 Generating the Flows Without the Data 439
22.3.2 Getting the Hydraulics and the Tankage Correct 440
22.3.2.1 When You Cannot Dye-test Your Tanks - a Procedure 441
22.4 Step 4: Flow Sheet Setup and Model Organization 443
22.5 Step 5: Model Compilation and Setup 444
22.5.1 Initial Values versus Derived Values 445
22.5.2 Integrator Settings 445
22.6 Step 6: Input and Output File Preparation 445
22.7 Step 7: Initialization of the Model Parameters and First Runs 445
22.7.1 What to Balance or Adjust 446
22.7.2 What to Key in on During Your Modeling 446
22.8 Step 8: Parameter Adjustments 446
Notes 447
Index 449
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<p>Guide to wastewater treatment; text to wastewater treatment; understanding wastewater treatment; resource to wastewater treatment; water pollution; contaminants in water; treating groundwater; collection of groundwater; manipulation of groundwater; permitting of wastewater discharge; sampling wastewater; measuring wastewater; the flow of water; flow of wastewater; industrial wastewater discharge; statistics of measuring wastewater; equations for determining amount of wastewater; statistics for environmental events; chemistry of wastewater; analyses of wastewater; aquatic testing; bacterial testing of wastewater; dissolved organic materials in wastewater; chemical oxygen demand in wastewater; wastewater techniques; removal of metals from wastewater; removing cadmium from wastewater; removing iron from wastewater; removing zinc from wastewater; removing mercury in wastewater</p>
Acknowledgments xvii
Preface xix
1 Composition, Chemistry, and Regulatory Framework 1
1.1 Water Composition 1
1.2 Water Characteristics and Physical Properties 2
1.2.1 Solubility of Gases in Water 4
1.2.1.1 Nitrogen 4
1.2.2 Henry's Law 6
1.3 Solution Chemistry: Salts and Ions in Water 10
1.4 Disassociation Constants for Weak Acid and Bases 12
1.4.1 Common Minerals Dissolved in Freshwater and Seawater 15
1.5 Sources of Water 16
1.5.1 Groundwater 16
1.5.2 Groundwater Quality 17
1.5.3 Other Principal Contaminants in Groundwater 18
1.5.4 Movement of Groundwater 19
1.6 Analytical Methods 19
1.7 Laboratory Guidance 22
1.8 Regulatory Framework of Water Regulations 24
1.8.1 What Is Quality Water? 24
1.8.2 Water Quality Standards 25
1.8.3 Water Quality Standards in the United States 26
1.8.4 Establishing Water Quality Standards 26
1.8.5 Effluent Standards and Guidance 26
1.8.6 Mixing Zones 27
1.8.7 Discharge Permits 28
1.8.8 US Penalty Policies - Enforcement of Permit Conditions 28
1.8.9 Water Quality Discharge Basics in the US 29
1.8.10 How Water Quality Standards Are Established 32
1.8.11 UK Water Effluent Quality Standard 37
1.8.12 EU Water Quality Standards and Effluent Limits 39
1.8.13 Other Water Quality Requirements 40
1.8.13.1 US Primary and Secondary Drinking Water Standards 40
1.8.13.2 WHO Drinking Water Quality Guidelines 43
1.8.13.3 EU Drinking Water Directives 43
1.8.13.4 UK Drinking Water Standards 43
1.9 Water Use Data and Some Discharge Characteristics 43
1.9.1 Water Use by Municipalities 45
1.9.2 Agricultural Water 47
1.9.3 Cooling Water 47
1.9.4 Boiler Water 48
1.9.5 Other Industrial Water Quality Requirements 49
1.9.5.1 Steel Industry 50
1.9.5.2 Paper Industry 50
1.9.5.3 Petrochemical Industry 50
1.9.5.4 Petroleum Exploration and Production Operations 51
Notes 52
2 What is Water Pollution? 59
2.1 Pollution Defined 59
2.2 Chemical Industry 60
2.3 Cooling Towers 63
2.4 Boilers 64
2.5 Iron and Steel Industry 66
2.6 Mining Industries 67
2.7 Fracking for Oil and Gas 68
2.8 Petroleum Exploration 71
2.9 Petroleum Refining 73
2.10 Agricultural and Food Processing 75
2.11 Crop Water Use 75
2.12 Vegetable and Fruit Processing 76
2.13 Animal Farming and Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations 77
2.14 Livestock and Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations 78
2.15 Slaughterhouse and Meat Packing and Processing Wastes 82
2.16 Dairy Wastes 83
2.17 Measuring Pollution 83
2.18 The Sampling Plan 85
2.19 Analytical Methods and the Role of the Laboratory 87
2.19.1 The Analytical Plan 90
2.19.2 The Effects of Pollution on the Environment 90
2.19.3 Oxygen Depletion - Biochemical Oxygen Demand 91
2.19.4 Oxygen Uptake in a Stream -The Oxygen Sag Equation 93
2.19.5 Biology of Polluted Water 95
2.19.6 Nitrogen 96
2.19.7 Phosphorus 97
Notes 98
3 Groundwater and its Treatment 103
3.1 Hydraulics of Groundwater 104
3.2 Soil Particles and Surface Areas 106
3.3 Well Hydraulics 107
3.4 Well Packing and Screens 109
3.5 Trenches 109
3.5.1 Orifices and Pipe Losses 111
3.6 Compressible Flow 113
3.6.1 Calculation of Expansion Factor 114
3.6.2 Groundwater Hydraulics 115
3.7 Groundwater Treatment 117
Notes 123
4 Statistics of Measurements 125
4.1 Introduction to Statistical Measurements: Background 125
4.2 Significant Figures 126
4.3 Probable Error 127
4.4 Repeat Measurements 128
4.5 Net Process Measurements 129
4.5.1 Calibration 129
4.5.2 How to Measure Your Flow Accurately 130
4.5.2.1 Gurley Current Meter 130
4.6 Statistical Distributions for Environmental Events 133
4.6.1 Weibull Distributions 134
4.7 Black Swans and Data Analysis 135
4.7.1 Black Swans 135
4.7.2 Data Analysis 136
4.7.3 Outliers 136
Notes 137
5 The Flow of Water and Wastewater 139
5.1 Statistical Basis for Error Estimation 139
5.2 Open Channel Hydraulics 140
5.3 Froude Number 147
5.4 Types of Flowmeters 150
5.5 Weir Plates 155
5.6 Alignment Errors 156
5.7 Samples and Sampling 158
5.8 Conclusion 161
Notes 161
6 Troubleshooting and Emergency Planning 163
6.1 Fault Tree Analysis 163
6.2 Reverse Fault Tree Analysis 166
6.2.1 Bow Tie Analysis 166
6.3 Analysis: The Five Whys 168
6.4 Regulatory Requirements 169
6.5 Software Solutions 169
6.6 Emergency Response Planning 170
Notes 170
7 Chemistry and Analyses 173
7.1 Aquatic Testing 173
7.2 Bacterial Testing 174
7.3 Dissolved Organic Materials - BOD, COD, and TOC 175
7.3.1 BOD vs ThOD 179
7.3.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand 181
7.3.3 TOC 183
7.4 Common Ion Species 183
7.4.1 Most Important Chemicals in the Water Environment 185
7.4.2 pH 185
7.4.3 Carbonate Chemistry 186
7.4.4 Alkalinity 186
7.5 Hardness 189
7.6 Chemical Water Softening 192
7.6.1 Excess Lime Process 193
7.7 Nitrogen 194
7.8 Phosphorus 197
7.9 Sulfur 198
7.10 Chlorine 198
7.11 Other Halogens 199
7.12 Metals 199
7.13 Solids 201
7.14 Organic Chemicals 205
Notes 206
8 Basic Water and Wastewater Treatment Techniques 209
8.1 Removal of Metals 209
8.2 Chromium 211
8.2.1 Other Chromium Reduction Reactions 212
8.3 Arsenic 213
8.4 Cadmium 213
8.5 Iron 214
8.6 Zinc 214
8.7 Mercury 214
8.8 Radium 215
8.9 Anions 218
8.9.1 Cyanide 218
8.9.2 Nitrates and Nitrites 219
8.10 Solvents and Oils 220
8.11 Chlorinated Organics 221
8.11.1 PCBs 222
8.11.2 DDT 223
Notes 225
9 Biological Wastewater Treatment 227
9.1 The Microbial World 227
9.2 Order of Treatment 233
9.3 Types of Organisms 234
9.4 Chemistry and Activated Sludge 238
9.5 Growth Conditions and Nitrification 239
9.6 Denitrification and Phosphate Removal 240
9.7 Biological Growth Equation 241
9.7.1 The Monod Equation 242
9.7.2 Microbial Decay 243
9.7.3 Effect of Temperature and pH on Rate of Reactions 245
9.8 Principles of Biological Treatment Systems 245
9.9 Activated Sludge and its Variations 248
9.10 Substrate Removal Definitions 250
9.11 Trickling Filters and Variations 252
9.12 Clarification for Biological Removals 254
9.13 Other Solids Removals 255
9.14 Biological Synthesis and Oxidation 255
9.15 Biological Treatment of Toxic Wastes 257
9.16 Modeling the Biological Process 257
9.16.1 Modeling Notes Before One Starts 258
9.16.2 Free Wastewater Treatment Modeling Platforms 261
9.16.2.1 SSSP 261
9.16.2.2 STEADY 261
9.16.2.3 JASS 262
9.16.2.4 Stoat 262
9.16.3 Commercially Available Modeling Tools 263
9.16.3.1 GPSX 263
9.16.3.2 SUMO 264
9.16.3.3 SIMBA 265
9.16.3.4 Biowin 267
9.16.3.5 WEST 268
9.16.4 Modeling Summary 268
Notes 270
10 Anaerobic Treatment 273
10.1 Basic Anaerobic Processes for Wastewater 273
10.2 Phosphorus Removal 275
10.3 Basic Anaerobic Processes for Digestion and Treatment 276
10.4 Anaerobic Pretreatment 278
10.5 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactors 281
10.6 Other Digester Configurations 283
10.7 Siloxane Removals 283
10.8 Sludge Digestion 284
10.9 Gas Production Emphasis 286
10.10 New Technologies 287
10.11 Sludge Treatment 288
10.12 Anaerobic Digester Model ADM1 288
10.13 Struvite and Anaerobic Processes 289
Notes 290
11 Precipitation and Sedimentation 293
11.1 Theory of Sedimentation 293
11.2 Clarifiers and their Design 294
11.2.1 Bulk Velocity - Surface Loading Rate 294
11.2.2 Hydraulic Detention Time 296
11.3 Lamellas and Specialty Devices 298
11.3.1 Lamellas 298
11.3.2 Membrane Filters 299
Note 301
12 Granular Filtration Theory and Practice 303
12.1 Granular Media Filtration 303
12.1.1 Sizing of Filters by Flow Rate 303
12.1.2 Uniformity Coefficient and Effective Grain Size 306
12.2 Filtration Hydraulics 306
12.3 Particle Size Removals 307
12.4 Backwash Hydraulics 307
12.4.1 Use of Air in the Backwash of Granular Filtration Systems 310
Notes 312
13 Skin Filtration 313
13.1 Introduction 313
13.2 Microstrainers and Screens 313
13.3 Belt Filters 316
13.4 Plate and Frame Filters 316
13.5 Cloth vs. Paper Filters 319
13.6 Precoat 320
13.7 Head Loss Through Cloth Filters 322
13.8 Bag Filters 323
Notes 324
14 Membrane Filters and Reverse Osmosis 325
14.1 Introduction 325
14.2 Design Values 330
14.3 Process Selection 330
14.3.1 Ultrafiltration Membrane Selection 330
14.3.2 Cellulose Acetate Membranes 331
14.3.3 Polysulfone Membranes 331
14.3.4 Polyamide Membranes 331
14.3.5 Polyacrylonitrile Membranes 331
14.3.6 Ultrafiltration Modules 332
14.4 Reverse Osmosis 333
14.5 Mass Transfer Theory 333
14.6 Membrane Design Software 334
14.7 Membrane Materials 336
14.8 Membrane Configurations 337
14.9 RO Design Considerations 338
14.9.1 Feedwater Supply Considerations 338
14.9.2 Pressure Pumping 338
14.9.3 Membrane Considerations 341
14.9.4 Post-treatment 341
14.10 Design Parameters 341
Notes 344
15 Disinfection 347
15.1 Introduction 347
15.2 Rate of Kill - Disinfection Parameters 347
15.2.1 Chick's Law 347
15.2.2 Harmful Organisms 348
15.3 Chlorine 353
15.3.1 Ammonia, Chlorine, and Chloramines 354
15.3.2 Other Types of Chlorine 355
15.3.3 Other Reactions with Chlorine 355
15.3.4 Chlorine Safety 355
15.3.5 Chlorine Dioxide 356
15.4 Ozone 357
15.5 Ultraviolet Light 358
15.5.1 LED Lighting 360
15.6 Other Disinfecting Compounds 360
15.6.1 Potassium Permanganate 360
15.6.2 Hydrogen Peroxide and Ozone 361
15.6.3 PAA: Peracetic Acid 362
15.6.4 Bromine 364
15.6.5 Iodine 365
15.6.5.1 Types of Iodinators 365
15.6.5.2 Careful Use of Iodine 365
15.7 Disinfection by Ultra Filtration 366
Notes 367
16 Phosphorus and Nitrogen Removal 369
16.1 General 369
16.2 BardenPho (c) Processes 373
16.3 Chemical Phosphorus Removal 375
16.4 Nitrogen Removal 378
16.4.1 Nitrogen Chemistry and Forms 378
16.4.2 Ammonia 378
16.4.3 Nitrate 379
16.4.4 Nitrification 379
16.4.4.1 Ammonia Stripping 388
16.4.4.2 Ion Exchange 390
16.5 Conclusions 392
Notes 392
17 Carbon Adsorption 395
17.1 Introduction 395
17.2 The Freundlich and Langmuir Equations 396
17.3 Carbon Adsorption Physical Coefficients and Economics 397
17.4 Other Considerations 397
17.4.1 Carbon Regeneration 397
17.4.2 The PACTTM Process 397
17.4.3 Wet Air Regeneration for PACT Systems 398
Note 401
18 Ion Exchange 403
18.1 Resins 403
18.2 Physical Characteristics 403
18.3 Chemical Structure 404
18.3.1 Selectivity 404
18.3.2 Selectivity Coefficient 405
18.4 Design Considerations 406
18.4.1 Pretreatment 406
19 Dissolved Air Flotation and Techniques 409
19.1 Design Basics for DAF 409
19.2 Operating Parameters 410
19.3 Theory and Design 411
19.4 Ranges of Data 412
19.5 Electroflotation 413
19.5.1 Electroflotation Theory and Design 414
19.6 Electrocoagulation 415
Notes 416
20 Coagulation, Flocculation and Chemical Treatment 419
20.1 Introduction 419
20.2 Sols 421
20.3 Flocculation and Mixing 422
20.4 Practice 423
20.5 Modeling 424
Notes 424
21 Heat Transfer Processes: Boilers, Heat Exchangers and Cooling Towers 425
21.1 Boilers 425
21.2 Boiler Classifications 426
21.2.1 Fire Tube Boilers 426
21.2.2 Water Tube Boilers 426
21.3 Boiler Water Quality Requirements 427
21.4 Cooling Towers 430
Notes 431
22 Evaluating an Existing Wastewater Treatment Plant Design using Modeling Software 433
22.1 Step 1: Information Gathering 433
22.2 Step 2: Model Selection 435
22.3 Step 3: Laboratory and Other Data Organization 438
22.3.1 Generating the Flows Without the Data 439
22.3.2 Getting the Hydraulics and the Tankage Correct 440
22.3.2.1 When You Cannot Dye-test Your Tanks - a Procedure 441
22.4 Step 4: Flow Sheet Setup and Model Organization 443
22.5 Step 5: Model Compilation and Setup 444
22.5.1 Initial Values versus Derived Values 445
22.5.2 Integrator Settings 445
22.6 Step 6: Input and Output File Preparation 445
22.7 Step 7: Initialization of the Model Parameters and First Runs 445
22.7.1 What to Balance or Adjust 446
22.7.2 What to Key in on During Your Modeling 446
22.8 Step 8: Parameter Adjustments 446
Notes 447
Index 449
Preface xix
1 Composition, Chemistry, and Regulatory Framework 1
1.1 Water Composition 1
1.2 Water Characteristics and Physical Properties 2
1.2.1 Solubility of Gases in Water 4
1.2.1.1 Nitrogen 4
1.2.2 Henry's Law 6
1.3 Solution Chemistry: Salts and Ions in Water 10
1.4 Disassociation Constants for Weak Acid and Bases 12
1.4.1 Common Minerals Dissolved in Freshwater and Seawater 15
1.5 Sources of Water 16
1.5.1 Groundwater 16
1.5.2 Groundwater Quality 17
1.5.3 Other Principal Contaminants in Groundwater 18
1.5.4 Movement of Groundwater 19
1.6 Analytical Methods 19
1.7 Laboratory Guidance 22
1.8 Regulatory Framework of Water Regulations 24
1.8.1 What Is Quality Water? 24
1.8.2 Water Quality Standards 25
1.8.3 Water Quality Standards in the United States 26
1.8.4 Establishing Water Quality Standards 26
1.8.5 Effluent Standards and Guidance 26
1.8.6 Mixing Zones 27
1.8.7 Discharge Permits 28
1.8.8 US Penalty Policies - Enforcement of Permit Conditions 28
1.8.9 Water Quality Discharge Basics in the US 29
1.8.10 How Water Quality Standards Are Established 32
1.8.11 UK Water Effluent Quality Standard 37
1.8.12 EU Water Quality Standards and Effluent Limits 39
1.8.13 Other Water Quality Requirements 40
1.8.13.1 US Primary and Secondary Drinking Water Standards 40
1.8.13.2 WHO Drinking Water Quality Guidelines 43
1.8.13.3 EU Drinking Water Directives 43
1.8.13.4 UK Drinking Water Standards 43
1.9 Water Use Data and Some Discharge Characteristics 43
1.9.1 Water Use by Municipalities 45
1.9.2 Agricultural Water 47
1.9.3 Cooling Water 47
1.9.4 Boiler Water 48
1.9.5 Other Industrial Water Quality Requirements 49
1.9.5.1 Steel Industry 50
1.9.5.2 Paper Industry 50
1.9.5.3 Petrochemical Industry 50
1.9.5.4 Petroleum Exploration and Production Operations 51
Notes 52
2 What is Water Pollution? 59
2.1 Pollution Defined 59
2.2 Chemical Industry 60
2.3 Cooling Towers 63
2.4 Boilers 64
2.5 Iron and Steel Industry 66
2.6 Mining Industries 67
2.7 Fracking for Oil and Gas 68
2.8 Petroleum Exploration 71
2.9 Petroleum Refining 73
2.10 Agricultural and Food Processing 75
2.11 Crop Water Use 75
2.12 Vegetable and Fruit Processing 76
2.13 Animal Farming and Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations 77
2.14 Livestock and Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations 78
2.15 Slaughterhouse and Meat Packing and Processing Wastes 82
2.16 Dairy Wastes 83
2.17 Measuring Pollution 83
2.18 The Sampling Plan 85
2.19 Analytical Methods and the Role of the Laboratory 87
2.19.1 The Analytical Plan 90
2.19.2 The Effects of Pollution on the Environment 90
2.19.3 Oxygen Depletion - Biochemical Oxygen Demand 91
2.19.4 Oxygen Uptake in a Stream -The Oxygen Sag Equation 93
2.19.5 Biology of Polluted Water 95
2.19.6 Nitrogen 96
2.19.7 Phosphorus 97
Notes 98
3 Groundwater and its Treatment 103
3.1 Hydraulics of Groundwater 104
3.2 Soil Particles and Surface Areas 106
3.3 Well Hydraulics 107
3.4 Well Packing and Screens 109
3.5 Trenches 109
3.5.1 Orifices and Pipe Losses 111
3.6 Compressible Flow 113
3.6.1 Calculation of Expansion Factor 114
3.6.2 Groundwater Hydraulics 115
3.7 Groundwater Treatment 117
Notes 123
4 Statistics of Measurements 125
4.1 Introduction to Statistical Measurements: Background 125
4.2 Significant Figures 126
4.3 Probable Error 127
4.4 Repeat Measurements 128
4.5 Net Process Measurements 129
4.5.1 Calibration 129
4.5.2 How to Measure Your Flow Accurately 130
4.5.2.1 Gurley Current Meter 130
4.6 Statistical Distributions for Environmental Events 133
4.6.1 Weibull Distributions 134
4.7 Black Swans and Data Analysis 135
4.7.1 Black Swans 135
4.7.2 Data Analysis 136
4.7.3 Outliers 136
Notes 137
5 The Flow of Water and Wastewater 139
5.1 Statistical Basis for Error Estimation 139
5.2 Open Channel Hydraulics 140
5.3 Froude Number 147
5.4 Types of Flowmeters 150
5.5 Weir Plates 155
5.6 Alignment Errors 156
5.7 Samples and Sampling 158
5.8 Conclusion 161
Notes 161
6 Troubleshooting and Emergency Planning 163
6.1 Fault Tree Analysis 163
6.2 Reverse Fault Tree Analysis 166
6.2.1 Bow Tie Analysis 166
6.3 Analysis: The Five Whys 168
6.4 Regulatory Requirements 169
6.5 Software Solutions 169
6.6 Emergency Response Planning 170
Notes 170
7 Chemistry and Analyses 173
7.1 Aquatic Testing 173
7.2 Bacterial Testing 174
7.3 Dissolved Organic Materials - BOD, COD, and TOC 175
7.3.1 BOD vs ThOD 179
7.3.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand 181
7.3.3 TOC 183
7.4 Common Ion Species 183
7.4.1 Most Important Chemicals in the Water Environment 185
7.4.2 pH 185
7.4.3 Carbonate Chemistry 186
7.4.4 Alkalinity 186
7.5 Hardness 189
7.6 Chemical Water Softening 192
7.6.1 Excess Lime Process 193
7.7 Nitrogen 194
7.8 Phosphorus 197
7.9 Sulfur 198
7.10 Chlorine 198
7.11 Other Halogens 199
7.12 Metals 199
7.13 Solids 201
7.14 Organic Chemicals 205
Notes 206
8 Basic Water and Wastewater Treatment Techniques 209
8.1 Removal of Metals 209
8.2 Chromium 211
8.2.1 Other Chromium Reduction Reactions 212
8.3 Arsenic 213
8.4 Cadmium 213
8.5 Iron 214
8.6 Zinc 214
8.7 Mercury 214
8.8 Radium 215
8.9 Anions 218
8.9.1 Cyanide 218
8.9.2 Nitrates and Nitrites 219
8.10 Solvents and Oils 220
8.11 Chlorinated Organics 221
8.11.1 PCBs 222
8.11.2 DDT 223
Notes 225
9 Biological Wastewater Treatment 227
9.1 The Microbial World 227
9.2 Order of Treatment 233
9.3 Types of Organisms 234
9.4 Chemistry and Activated Sludge 238
9.5 Growth Conditions and Nitrification 239
9.6 Denitrification and Phosphate Removal 240
9.7 Biological Growth Equation 241
9.7.1 The Monod Equation 242
9.7.2 Microbial Decay 243
9.7.3 Effect of Temperature and pH on Rate of Reactions 245
9.8 Principles of Biological Treatment Systems 245
9.9 Activated Sludge and its Variations 248
9.10 Substrate Removal Definitions 250
9.11 Trickling Filters and Variations 252
9.12 Clarification for Biological Removals 254
9.13 Other Solids Removals 255
9.14 Biological Synthesis and Oxidation 255
9.15 Biological Treatment of Toxic Wastes 257
9.16 Modeling the Biological Process 257
9.16.1 Modeling Notes Before One Starts 258
9.16.2 Free Wastewater Treatment Modeling Platforms 261
9.16.2.1 SSSP 261
9.16.2.2 STEADY 261
9.16.2.3 JASS 262
9.16.2.4 Stoat 262
9.16.3 Commercially Available Modeling Tools 263
9.16.3.1 GPSX 263
9.16.3.2 SUMO 264
9.16.3.3 SIMBA 265
9.16.3.4 Biowin 267
9.16.3.5 WEST 268
9.16.4 Modeling Summary 268
Notes 270
10 Anaerobic Treatment 273
10.1 Basic Anaerobic Processes for Wastewater 273
10.2 Phosphorus Removal 275
10.3 Basic Anaerobic Processes for Digestion and Treatment 276
10.4 Anaerobic Pretreatment 278
10.5 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactors 281
10.6 Other Digester Configurations 283
10.7 Siloxane Removals 283
10.8 Sludge Digestion 284
10.9 Gas Production Emphasis 286
10.10 New Technologies 287
10.11 Sludge Treatment 288
10.12 Anaerobic Digester Model ADM1 288
10.13 Struvite and Anaerobic Processes 289
Notes 290
11 Precipitation and Sedimentation 293
11.1 Theory of Sedimentation 293
11.2 Clarifiers and their Design 294
11.2.1 Bulk Velocity - Surface Loading Rate 294
11.2.2 Hydraulic Detention Time 296
11.3 Lamellas and Specialty Devices 298
11.3.1 Lamellas 298
11.3.2 Membrane Filters 299
Note 301
12 Granular Filtration Theory and Practice 303
12.1 Granular Media Filtration 303
12.1.1 Sizing of Filters by Flow Rate 303
12.1.2 Uniformity Coefficient and Effective Grain Size 306
12.2 Filtration Hydraulics 306
12.3 Particle Size Removals 307
12.4 Backwash Hydraulics 307
12.4.1 Use of Air in the Backwash of Granular Filtration Systems 310
Notes 312
13 Skin Filtration 313
13.1 Introduction 313
13.2 Microstrainers and Screens 313
13.3 Belt Filters 316
13.4 Plate and Frame Filters 316
13.5 Cloth vs. Paper Filters 319
13.6 Precoat 320
13.7 Head Loss Through Cloth Filters 322
13.8 Bag Filters 323
Notes 324
14 Membrane Filters and Reverse Osmosis 325
14.1 Introduction 325
14.2 Design Values 330
14.3 Process Selection 330
14.3.1 Ultrafiltration Membrane Selection 330
14.3.2 Cellulose Acetate Membranes 331
14.3.3 Polysulfone Membranes 331
14.3.4 Polyamide Membranes 331
14.3.5 Polyacrylonitrile Membranes 331
14.3.6 Ultrafiltration Modules 332
14.4 Reverse Osmosis 333
14.5 Mass Transfer Theory 333
14.6 Membrane Design Software 334
14.7 Membrane Materials 336
14.8 Membrane Configurations 337
14.9 RO Design Considerations 338
14.9.1 Feedwater Supply Considerations 338
14.9.2 Pressure Pumping 338
14.9.3 Membrane Considerations 341
14.9.4 Post-treatment 341
14.10 Design Parameters 341
Notes 344
15 Disinfection 347
15.1 Introduction 347
15.2 Rate of Kill - Disinfection Parameters 347
15.2.1 Chick's Law 347
15.2.2 Harmful Organisms 348
15.3 Chlorine 353
15.3.1 Ammonia, Chlorine, and Chloramines 354
15.3.2 Other Types of Chlorine 355
15.3.3 Other Reactions with Chlorine 355
15.3.4 Chlorine Safety 355
15.3.5 Chlorine Dioxide 356
15.4 Ozone 357
15.5 Ultraviolet Light 358
15.5.1 LED Lighting 360
15.6 Other Disinfecting Compounds 360
15.6.1 Potassium Permanganate 360
15.6.2 Hydrogen Peroxide and Ozone 361
15.6.3 PAA: Peracetic Acid 362
15.6.4 Bromine 364
15.6.5 Iodine 365
15.6.5.1 Types of Iodinators 365
15.6.5.2 Careful Use of Iodine 365
15.7 Disinfection by Ultra Filtration 366
Notes 367
16 Phosphorus and Nitrogen Removal 369
16.1 General 369
16.2 BardenPho (c) Processes 373
16.3 Chemical Phosphorus Removal 375
16.4 Nitrogen Removal 378
16.4.1 Nitrogen Chemistry and Forms 378
16.4.2 Ammonia 378
16.4.3 Nitrate 379
16.4.4 Nitrification 379
16.4.4.1 Ammonia Stripping 388
16.4.4.2 Ion Exchange 390
16.5 Conclusions 392
Notes 392
17 Carbon Adsorption 395
17.1 Introduction 395
17.2 The Freundlich and Langmuir Equations 396
17.3 Carbon Adsorption Physical Coefficients and Economics 397
17.4 Other Considerations 397
17.4.1 Carbon Regeneration 397
17.4.2 The PACTTM Process 397
17.4.3 Wet Air Regeneration for PACT Systems 398
Note 401
18 Ion Exchange 403
18.1 Resins 403
18.2 Physical Characteristics 403
18.3 Chemical Structure 404
18.3.1 Selectivity 404
18.3.2 Selectivity Coefficient 405
18.4 Design Considerations 406
18.4.1 Pretreatment 406
19 Dissolved Air Flotation and Techniques 409
19.1 Design Basics for DAF 409
19.2 Operating Parameters 410
19.3 Theory and Design 411
19.4 Ranges of Data 412
19.5 Electroflotation 413
19.5.1 Electroflotation Theory and Design 414
19.6 Electrocoagulation 415
Notes 416
20 Coagulation, Flocculation and Chemical Treatment 419
20.1 Introduction 419
20.2 Sols 421
20.3 Flocculation and Mixing 422
20.4 Practice 423
20.5 Modeling 424
Notes 424
21 Heat Transfer Processes: Boilers, Heat Exchangers and Cooling Towers 425
21.1 Boilers 425
21.2 Boiler Classifications 426
21.2.1 Fire Tube Boilers 426
21.2.2 Water Tube Boilers 426
21.3 Boiler Water Quality Requirements 427
21.4 Cooling Towers 430
Notes 431
22 Evaluating an Existing Wastewater Treatment Plant Design using Modeling Software 433
22.1 Step 1: Information Gathering 433
22.2 Step 2: Model Selection 435
22.3 Step 3: Laboratory and Other Data Organization 438
22.3.1 Generating the Flows Without the Data 439
22.3.2 Getting the Hydraulics and the Tankage Correct 440
22.3.2.1 When You Cannot Dye-test Your Tanks - a Procedure 441
22.4 Step 4: Flow Sheet Setup and Model Organization 443
22.5 Step 5: Model Compilation and Setup 444
22.5.1 Initial Values versus Derived Values 445
22.5.2 Integrator Settings 445
22.6 Step 6: Input and Output File Preparation 445
22.7 Step 7: Initialization of the Model Parameters and First Runs 445
22.7.1 What to Balance or Adjust 446
22.7.2 What to Key in on During Your Modeling 446
22.8 Step 8: Parameter Adjustments 446
Notes 447
Index 449
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<p>Guide to wastewater treatment; text to wastewater treatment; understanding wastewater treatment; resource to wastewater treatment; water pollution; contaminants in water; treating groundwater; collection of groundwater; manipulation of groundwater; permitting of wastewater discharge; sampling wastewater; measuring wastewater; the flow of water; flow of wastewater; industrial wastewater discharge; statistics of measuring wastewater; equations for determining amount of wastewater; statistics for environmental events; chemistry of wastewater; analyses of wastewater; aquatic testing; bacterial testing of wastewater; dissolved organic materials in wastewater; chemical oxygen demand in wastewater; wastewater techniques; removal of metals from wastewater; removing cadmium from wastewater; removing iron from wastewater; removing zinc from wastewater; removing mercury in wastewater</p>
