Oil and Gas Pipelines, Multi-Volume
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portes grátis
Oil and Gas Pipelines, Multi-Volume
Integrity, Safety, and Security Handbook
Revie, R. Winston
John Wiley & Sons Inc
05/2025
1504
Dura
Inglês
9781119909613
Pré-lançamento - envio 15 a 20 dias após a sua edição
Descrição não disponível.
CONTENTS
CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE
PART I DIGITALIZATION OF PIPELINES
1 Digital Future of Pipeline Integrity
Gaurav Singh
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Digital Integrity Framework
1.3 Fast Forward Digital Future Technologies
1.4 Technology Transition with Energy Transition
References
2 Cybersecurity and Safety Implications of Pipelines
Ben Miller and Jason Christopher
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Defining Industrial Cybersecurity
2.3 The Industrial Cybersecurity Challenge
2.4 Industrial Intrusion Case Studies - A Short History
2.5 Industrial Cybersecurity Considerations for Pipeline Operations
2.6 The Five ICS Cybersecurity Critical Controls
2.7 Getting Started: Common High-Impact Scenarios for Pipeline Operations
2.8 Conclusion
References
3 Practical Applications of Machine Learning to Pipeline Integrity
Michael Gloven
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Machine Learning Fundamentals
3.3 Supervised Learning - Classification
3.4 Supervised Learning - Regression
3.5 Unsupervised Learning
3.6 Final Thoughts
3.7 Summary
References
Bibliography
4 Pipeline Corrosion Management, Artificial Intelligence, and Machine Learning
Khairul Chowdhury, Binder Singh, and Shahidullah Kawsar
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Background
4.3 Analysis Tool: Automated Predictive Analytics Computation Systems
4.4 Problem Example: Predicting Failure by External and Internal Corrosion
4.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
PART II DESIGN
5 CO2 Pipeline Transportation: Managing the Safe Repurposing of Vintage Pipelines in a Low-Carbon Economy
Daniel Sandana
5.1 Introduction
5.2 CCUS: An Enabler of Decarbonization
5.3 Transportation of CO2 by Pipeline: Operations
5.4 CO2 Pipeline Transportation: Key Integrity Challenges
5.5 Managing the Safe Repurposing of Vintage Pipelines
References
6 Pipeline Integrity Management Systems (PIMS)
Katherine Jonsson, Ray Goodfellow, Douglas Evans, and Chitman Lutchman
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lessons Learned and the Evolution of Pipeline Integrity
6.3 Regulatory Requirements
6.4 What is a PIMS?
6.5 Core Structure and PIMS Elements
6.6 PIMS Function Map
6.7 Plan: Strategic and Operational
6.8 Do: Execute
6.9 Check: Assurance and Verification
6.10 Act: Management Review
6.11 Culture
6.12 Summary
References
7 SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
Rumi Mohammad, Ian Verhappen, and Ramin Vali
7.1 Introduction
7.2 SCADA Computer Servers
7.3 SCADA Computer Workstations
7.4 Hierarchy
7.5 Runtime and Configuration Databases
7.6 Fault Tolerance
7.7 Redundancy
7.8 High Availability
7.9 Human Factors Design in SCADA Systems
7.10 Alarm Rationalization, Management, and Analysis
7.11 Incident Review and Replay
7.12 Data Quality
7.13 Operator Logbook and Shift Handover
7.14 Training
7.15 SCADA Security
7.16 Cybersecurity
7.17 SCADA Standards
7.18 Pipeline Industry Applications
7.19 Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence
7.20 Communication Media
7.21 Communications Infrastructure
7.22 Communications Integrity
7.23 RTUs and PLCs
7.24 Database
7.25 User-Defined Programs
7.26 RTU/PLC Integrity
7.27 Safety Systems
7.28 IOT/IIOT
7.29 Electrical Classification Compliance
Acronyms, Abbreviations, Terms
Bibliography
8 Material Selection for Fracture Control
William Tyson
8.1 Overview of Fracture Control
8.2 Toughness Requirements: Initiation
8.3 Toughness Requirements: Propagation
8.4 Toughness Measurement
8.5 Current Status
References
9 Strain-Based Design of Pipelines
Nader Yoosef-Ghodsi
9.1 Introduction and Basic Concepts
9.2 Strain Demand
9.3 Strain Capacity
9.4 Role of Full-Scale and Curved Wide Plate Testing
9.5 Summary
References
10 Stress-Based Design of Pipelines
Mavis Sika Okyere
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Design Pressure
10.3 Design Factor
10.4 Determination of Components of Stress
10.5 Fatigue
10.6 Expansion and Flexibility
10.7 Corrosion Allowance
10.8 Pipeline Stiffness
10.9 Pipeline Ovality
10.10 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius
10.11 Pipeline Design for External Pressure
10.12 Check for Hydrotest Conditions
10.13 Summary
Appendix 10.A: Case Study
References
11 Spiral Welded Pipes for Shallow Offshore Applications
Ayman Eltaher
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Limitations of the Technology Feasibility
11.3 Challenges of Offshore Applications
11.4 Typical Pipe Properties
11.5 Technology Qualification
11.6 Additional Resources
11.7 Summary
References
12 Residual Stress in Pipelines
Douglas Hornbach and Paul Prevey
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Influence of Residual Stresses on Performance
12.3 Residual Stress Measurement
12.4 Control and Alteration of Residual Stresses
12.5 Case Studies of the Effect of Residual Stress and Cold Work
References
13 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Modeling in Support of Pipeline Engineering Design and Integrity
Shawn Kenny and Paul Jukes
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Site Characterization and Geotechnical Engineering in Relation to Pipeline System Response Analysis
13.3 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Analysis and Design
Acknowledgments
References
14 Human Factors
Lorna Harron
14.1 Introduction
14.2 What Is "Human Factors"?
14.3 The Human in the System
14.4 Life Cycle Approach to Human Factors
14.5 Human Factors and Decision Making
14.6 Application of Human Factors Guidance
14.7 Heuristics and Biases in Decision Making
14.8 Human Factors Contribution to Incidents in the Pipeline Industry
14.9 Human Factors Life Cycle Revisited
14.10 Tools and Methods
14.11 Summary
References
Bibliography
PART III NONMETALLIC PIPELINES
15 Nonmetallic Composite Pipelines
Niels Grigat, Stephan Koss, Ben Vollbrecht, Tim Moelling, Johannes Henrich Schleifenbaum, and Thomas Gries
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Materials
15.3 Manufacturing
15.4 Applications
15.5 Conclusion
References
PART IV MANUFACTURE, FABRICATION, AND CONSTRUCTION
16 Microstructure and Texture Development in Pipeline Steels
Roumen H. Petrov, John J. Jonas, Leo A.I. Kestens, and J. Malcolm Gray
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Short History of Pipeline Steel Development
16.3 Texture Control in Pipeline Steels
16.4 Effect of Texture on In-Plane Anisotropy
16.5 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
17 Pipe Manufacture-Longitudinal Submerged Arc Welded Large Diameter Pipe
Christoph Kalwa
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Manufacturing Process
17.3 Quality Control Procedures
17.4 Range of Grades and Dimensions
17.5 Typical Fields of Application
18 Pipe Manufacture - Spiral Pipe
Franz Martin Knoop
18.1 Manufacturing Process
18.2 Quality Control Procedures
18.3 Range of Grades and Dimensions
18.4 Typical Fields of Applicability
References
19 Pipe Manufacture-Seamless Tube and Pipe
Rolf Kuemmerling and Klaus Kraemer
19.1 The Rolling Process
19.2 Further Processing
References
20 Design of Steels for Large Diameter Sour Service Pipelines
Nobuyuki Ishikawa
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking of Linepipe Steel and Evaluation Method
20.3 Material Design of Linepipe Steel with HIC Resistance
20.4 Material Design of Linepipe Steel with SSC Resistance under Severe Sour Conditions
References
21 Pipeline Welding from the Perspective of Safety and Integrity
David Dorling and James Gianetto
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Construction Welding Applications
21.2.1 Double-Joint Welding
21.2.2 Mainline Welding
21.2.3 Tie-In and Repair Welding
21.3 Non-destructive Inspection and Flaw Assessment
21.4 Welding Procedure and Welder Qualification
21.5 Hydrogen Control in Welds and the Prevention of Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking
21.6 Important Considerations for Qualifying Welding Procedures to a Strain-Based Design
21.7 Welding on In-Service Pipelines
21.8 Pipeline Incidents and Recent Industry and Regulatory Preventative Action
Appendix 21.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter
Appendix 21.B: Regulations, Codes, and Standards
Acknowledgements
References
22 The Effect of Installation on Offshore Pipeline Integrity
Robert O'Grady
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Installation Methods and Pipeline Behaviour During Installation
22.3 Critical Factors Governing Installation
22.4 Installation Analysis and Design Methodologies
22.5 Monitoring the Installation Process Offshore
22.6 Implications of Deeper Water on Installation
Reference
Bibliography
PART V THREATS TO INTEGRITY AND SAFETY
23 Top of the Line Corrosion (TLC): Causes and Mechanisms
Aisha H. Al-Moubaraki and Ime Bassey Obot
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Fundamentals of TLC
References
24 Management of Geohazard Loading during Pipeline Operation
Andy Young
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Nature of Hazards
24.3 Regulations on Geohazard Management
24.4 Geohazards Management Plan
24.5 Hazard Identification
24.6 Hazard Evaluation
24.7 Hazard Mitigation
References
25 Climate Change, Pipeline Corrosion, and Integrity Management
Binder Singh
25.1 Introduction
25.2 ALARP Factor
25.3 Natural or Man-Made?
25.4 Engineering Steel and Infrastructure
25.5 Reasons for Optimism
25.6 Discussion and Closing Remarks
Caveat and Acknowledgements
Appendix 25.A Acronyms, Definitions, and Criteria
Appendix 25.B Main Corrosion Terms: Modes and Mechanisms
References
Bibliography
26 External Corrosion of Pipelines in Soil
Homero Castaneda, Hui Wang, and Omar Rosas
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Background
26.3 Critical Factors of Soil Corrosivity that Affect Pipelines
26.4 Identifying Corrosive Environments
26.5 Cathodic Protection and Stray Currents
26.6 Monitoring and Inspection for Corrosion Characterization under Multiscale Conditions
References
27 Knowledge- and Data-Driven External Corrosion Modeling in Pipelines
Hui Wang, Homero Castaneda, and Sreelakshmi Sreeharan
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Background
27.3 Model Framework and Theory
27.4 Model Application
27.5 Limitations of the Approach
27.6 Conclusion
References
28 Electrochemical Noise to Monitor Corrosion of a Coated Metal
Sarah Leeds
28.1 Introduction
28.1.1 Protective Coatings
28.1.2 History of Electrochemical Noise
28.1.3 What is Electrochemical Noise?
28.2 Electrochemical Noise Method
28.3 Applications of ECN
28.3.1 Examples of the Application of Electrochemical Noise
Acknowledgments
References
29 Telluric Influence on Pipelines
David H. Boteler and Larisa Trichtchenko
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Review of the Existing Knowledge on Pipeline-Telluric Interference
29.3 Geomagnetic Sources of Telluric Activity
29.4 Earth Resistivity Influence on Telluric Activity
29.5 Pipeline Response to Telluric Electric Fields
29.6 Telluric Hazard Assessment
29.7 Mitigation/Compensation of Telluric Effects
29.8 Knowledge Gaps/Open Questions
29.9 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
30 Factors Controlling Stress Corrosion Cracking and Typical Growth Rates
B N Leis
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Research Concerning the Factors Controlling SCC
30.3 Factors Controlling SCC - Service vs Laboratory Cracking
30.4 Quantifying a Bathtub Speed-Life Curve for High-pH SCC
30.5 Emergence of NN-pH SCC: Its Traits vs High-pH SCC
30.6 Industry Guidance on Crack Speed and the Incidence of SCC
30.6.2 Where and When SCC Might Be Anticipated
30.7 Interface between Integrity and Condition Assessment
30.8 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
31 Processes for High-pH and Near-Neutral-pH Stress Corrosion Cracking
B N Leis
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Imaging SCC and Related Observations
31.3 Compendium of SCC Images: Observations and Discussion
31.4 Crack Initiation and Growth Behavior on Pipelines
31.5 Summary and Key Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
32 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
Jason S. Lee and Brenda J. Little
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Materials
32.3 Microorganisms
32.4 Internal Corrosion of Pipelines
32.5 External Corrosion of Pipelines
32.6 Conclusions
References
33 Progression of Pitting Corrosion and Structural Reliability of Welded Steel Pipelines
Robert E. Melchers
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Asset Management and Prediction
33.3 Pitting
33.4 Model for Long-Term Growth in Pit Depth
33.5 Factors Influencing Maximum Pit Depth Development
33.6 Structural Reliability
33.7 Extreme Value Analysis for Maximum Pit Depth
33.8 Pitting at Welds
33.9 Case Study-Water Injection Pipelines
33.10 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
34 Mechanical Damage in Pipelines: A Review of the Methods and Improvements in Characterization, Evaluation, and Mitigation
Ming Gao and Ravi Krishnamurthy
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Dent Formation Process and Types of Dents
34.3 In-Line-Inspection (ILI) Technologies for Mechanical Damage Characterization
34.4 Technologies for In-Ditch Mechanical Damage Characterization
34.5 Assessment of Severity of Mechanical Damage
34.6 Mitigation and Repairs
34.7 Continued Challenges
References
35 Sulfide Stress Cracking
Russell D. Kane
35.1 Introduction
35.2 What Is Sulfide Stress Cracking?
35.3 Basics of Sulfide Stress Cracking in Pipelines
35.4 Comparison of SSC to Other Sour Cracking Mechanisms
35.5 Influence of Environmental Variables on SSC
35.6 Influence of Metallurgical Variables on SSC in Steels
35.7 Use of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys to Resist SSC
References
36 Stress Corrosion Cracking of Steel Equipment in Ethanol Service
Russell D. Kane
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Factors Affecting Susceptibility to Ethanol SCC
36.3 Occurrences and Consequences of eSCC
36.4 Guidelines for Identification, Mitigation, and Repair of eSCC
36.5 Path Forward
References
Bibliography of Additional eSCC Papers
37 AC Corrosion
Lars Vendelbo Nielsen
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Basic Understanding
37.3 AC Corrosion Risk Assessment and Management
References
Bibliography
38 Erosion-Corrosion in Oil and Gas Pipelines
Siamack A. Shirazi, Brenton S. McLaury, John R. Shadley, Kenneth P. Roberts, Edmund F. Rybicki, Hernan E. Rincon, Shokrollah Hassani, Faisal M. Al-Mutahar, and Gusai H. Al-Aithan
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Solid Particle Erosion
38.3 Erosion-Corrosion of Carbon Steel Piping in a CO2 Environment with Sand
38.4 Erosion-Corrosion Modeling and Characterization of Iron Carbonate Erosivity
38.5 Erosion-Corrosion of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys
38.6 Chemical Inhibition of Erosion-Corrosion
38.7 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
39 Black Powder in Oil and Gas Pipelines
Abdelmounam M. Sherik
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Impacts on Operations and Customers
39.3 Internal Corrosion of Sales Gas Transmission Pipelines
39.4 Analysis Techniques
39.5 Black Powder Movement
39.6 Erosive Properties of Black Powder
39.7 Black Powder Management Methods
39.9 Guidance on Handling and Disposal of Black Powder
39.10 Solutions
39.11 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
PART VI PROTECTION
40 Mitigating Top of the Line Corrosion (TLC) Using Corrosion Inhibitors: Types and Application Methods
Aisha H. Al-Moubaraki and Ime Bassey Obot
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Inhibitors Used to Mitigate TLC
40.3 Application Methods for Corrosion Inhibitors under TLC Conditions
References
41 External Coatings
Doug Waslen
41.1 Introduction and Background
41.2 Coating Performance
41.3 Product Testing
41.4 Standards and Application Specification
41.5 Field-Applied Coatings
41.6 Coating Types and Application
Reference
42 Thermoplastic Liners For Oilfield Pipelines
James F. Mason
42.1 Introduction
42.2 Codes and Standards
42.3 The Installation Process
42.4 Important Mechanical Design Aspects
42.5 Liner Materials
42.6 Operating a Pipeline with a Liner
42.7 Lined Pipeline Systems-Application Examples
References
43 Cathodic Protection
Sarah Leeds
43.1 Introduction
43.2 Historical Foundation of Cathodic Protection
43.3 Fundamentals of Cathodic Protection
43.4 How Cathodic Protection Is Applied
43.5 Design Principles of Cathodic Protection
43.6 Protective Coatings and Cathodic Protection
43.7 Monitoring Cathodic Protection Systems
43.8 Cathodic Protection Criteria
References
PART VII INSPECTION AND MONITORING
44 Using Cathodic Protection for Real-Time Detection of Mechanical Damage and Interference
Gerard Huss, Carine Lacroix, Eric Parizot, and David Xu
44.1 Introduction
44.2 Background
44.3 Testing Procedure and Process
44.4 Real-Time Detection of an Electrical Short between a Pipeline and Its Casing
44.5 Real-Time Detection of Mechanical Aggression on a Pipeline
44.6 Real-Time Detection of a Lightning Strike
44.7 Discussion
References
45 Airborne LiDAR for Pipeline Inspection and Leak Detection
Ashwin Yerasi
45.1 Introduction
45.2 LiDAR Measurements
45.3 Wavelength Bands
45.4 Operational Techniques
45.5 Ancillary Components
45.6 Inspection Report
45.7 LiDAR Developments for Natural Gas Pipeline Leak Surveillance
Appendix 45.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter
References
46 3D-Geolocalization by Magnetometry Using UAS: A Novel Method for Buried Pipeline Mapping and Bending Strain Assessment
Mehdi M. LAICHOUBI, Hamza KELLA BENNANI, Ludovic Berthelot, Vincent BENET, Miaohang HU, Michel PINET, and Samir TAKILLAH
46.1 Introduction
46.2 3D-Localisation and Depth of Cover Assessment
46.3 Materials and Methods
46.4 Case Study and Operating Procedure
46.5 Performance of the 3D-Localisation
46.6 Generalized Study on Eight GRTgaz Pipeline Spots
46.7 Bending Strain Assessment
46.8 Drone-Based Bending Strain (DBBS) Case Study
46.9 Conclusion
References
47 Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors for Pipeline Inspection and Monitoring
Nageswara Lalam and Ruishu Wright
47.1 Introduction
47.2 Distributed Strain and Temperature Sensing (DSTS)
47.3 Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS)
47.4 Distributed Chemical Sensing for Corrosion and Corrosivity Monitoring
47.5 Challenges and Opportunities
47.6 Conclusion
References
48 Direct Assessment
John A. Beavers, Lynsay A. Bensman, and Angel R. Kowalski
48.1 Introduction
48.2 External Corrosion DA (ECDA)
48.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking DA (SCCDA)
48.4 Internal Corrosion DA (ICDA)
References
49 Internal Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes
Daniel E. Powell
49.1 Introduction-Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes
49.2 Corrosion Coupons and Electrical Resistance Corrosion Probes
49.3 Placing Corrosion Monitoring Coupons or Electronic Probes within Pipelines
49.4 Monitoring Results "Drive" Chemical Treatment and Maintenance Pigging Programs
49.5 Relative Sensitivities of NDT versus Internal Corrosion Monitoring Techniques
49.6 Seek Consistency between Internal Corrosion Monitoring and NDT Results - Confirm Trends
49.7 Look for Consistency: Fluid Sample Analysis Should Complement and Verify Monitoring Results
49.8 Summary
49.9 Definitions of Corrosion Monitoring Terms from NACE 3T199 (c) NACE International 2012
References
50 In-Line Inspection (ILI) ("Intelligent Pigging")
Neb I. Uzelac
50.1 Introduction
50.2 Place of ILI in Pipeline Integrity Management
50.3 Running ILI Tools
50.4 Types of ILI Tools and Their Purpose
50.5 Utilizing ILI Data/Verification
50.6 Integrating ILI Data
Appendix 50.A: Sample Pipeline Inspection Questionnaire (Nonmandatory)
References
Bibliography: Journals, Conferences and Other Sources with ILI Related Content
51 Inspection of Offshore Pipelines
Konrad Reber
51.1 The Inspection Challenge in Offshore Pipelines
51.2 Internal Inspection of Offshore Pipelines
51.3 External Inspection Methods for Subsea Pipelines
51.4 Inspection of Risers
51.5 Conclusions
References
52 Tethered Inspection of Riser System for Wall Thickness and Cracks
A. Enters, T.-S. Kristiansen, and U. Schneider
52.1 Introduction
52.2 Tethered Tool Principle
52.3 Case Study: 10-Inch Rigid Offshore Oil Riser Inspection for Wall Thickness and Cracks
52.4 The Reinspection Project
52.5 Summary and Benefits
Reference
53 Eddy Current Testing in Pipeline Inspection
KONRAD REBER
53.1 Standard Eddy Current Testing
53.2 Enhanced Eddy Current Testing
53.3 Applications for Pipeline Inspection
References
54 Unpiggable Pipelines
Tom Steinvoorte
54.1 Introduction
54.2 Challenging Pipeline Inspection Approach
54.3 Free-Swimming ILI Tools for Challenging Pipeline Inspections
54.4 Self-Propelled Inspection Solutions
References
Bibliography: Sources of Additional Information
55 In-The-Ditch Pipeline Inspection
Greg Zinter
55.1 Overview
55.2 Introduction to Nondestructive Examination of Pipelines
55.3 NDE and a Pipeline Integrity Program
55.4 Pipeline Coatings
55.5 Types of Anomalies
55.6 NDE Measurement Technologies
55.7 Excavation Package
55.8 Data Collection
55.9 Conducting In-the-Ditch Assessment
55.10 Data Management
55.11 Recent Technological Developments
55.12 Summary
Acknowledgments
Reference
Bibliography
56 Flaw Assessment
Ted L. Anderson
56.1 Overview
56.1.1 Why Are Flaws Detrimental?
56.2 Assessing Metal Loss
56.3 Crack Assessment
56.4 Dents
References
57 Integrity Management of Pipeline Facilities
Greg Szuch, Mike Reed, and Keith Leewis
57.1 Introduction
57.2 Elements of a F-IMP
57.3 Building a Facility Integrity Plan
57.4 Final Thoughts
References
Bibliography: Essential Reading
58 Pipeline Geohazard Detection Using Satellite InSAR
Murray Down and Jon Leighton
58.1 Introduction: Why InSAR for Pipelines
58.2 Satelllite InSAR Simplified
58.3 Specifying InSAR Requirements
Bibliography
59 Integrity Management of Pipelines with Cracking
Michael Palmer
59.1 Introduction
59.2 What Are Cracks and How Do We Find Them?
59.3 Integrity Assessment of Cracks
59.4 What Can Be Done to Manage the Integrity of a Pipeline with Cracks?
References
PART VIII MAINTENANCE, REPAIR, REPLACEMENT, REUSE, AND ABANDONMENT
60 Hydrogen and the Energy Transition
Neil Gallon and Adrian Horsley
60.1 Introduction
60.2 Hydrogen Storage and Transport
60.3 Designing or Repurposing a Hydrogen Pipeline
60.4 Differences in the Integrity Management Approach between Hydrogen and Natural Gas Pipelines
60.4.1 Probability of Failure
60.4.2 Consequence
60.4.3 Implications for Integrity Management in Hydrogen
References
61 Pipeline Cleaning
Randy L. Roberts
61.1 Introduction
61.2 Contaminates
61.3 Progressive Pigging
61.4 Pig Types
61.5 Durometer
61.6 Mechanical and Liquid (Chemical) Cleaning
61.7 On-Line or Off-Line
61.8 Cleaning a Pipeline
61.9 How Clean Do I Need to Be?
61.10 Summary
References
62 Managing an Aging Pipeline Infrastructure
Brian N. Leis
62.1 Introduction
62.2 Background
62.3 Evolution of Line Pipe Steel, Pipe Making, and Pipeline Construction
62.4 Pipeline System Expansion and the Implications for "Older" Pipelines
62.5 The Evolution of Pipeline Codes and Standards, and Regulations
62.6 Some Unique Aspects of Early and Vintage Pipelines
62.7 Management Approach and Challenges
62.8 Closure
Acknowledgments
References
63 Pipeline Repair Using Full-Encirclement Repair Sleeves
William A. Bruce, Melissa Gould, and John Kiefner
63.1 Introduction
63.2 Background
63.3 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves
63.4 Comparison of Steel Sleeves and Fiber Reinforced Composite Repairs
63.5 Welding onto an In-Service Pipeline
63.6 Summary and Conclusions
References
64 Pipeline Repair
Robert Smyth and David Futch
64.1 Introduction
64.2 Background
64.3 Defect Identification
64.4 Safety
64.5 Protocols
64.6 Recoat
64.7 Pipe Replacement
64.8 Grinding/Sanding
64.9 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves, Type A and B
64.10 Epoxy-Filled Sleeves
64.11 Steel Compression Sleeves
64.12 Composite Reinforcement Sleeves
64.12.1 Designing an Effective Composite Repair
64.13 Thin Sheet Steel Coil Wrap
64.14 Hot Tapping
64.15 Direct Deposition Welding
64.16 Mechanical Clamps
64.17 Temporary Repairs
64.18 Applicability to Various Defect Types
References
65 Pipeline Oil Spill Cleanup
Merv Fingas
65.1 Oil Spills and Pipelines: An Overview
65.2 Response to Oil Spills
65.3 Types of Oil and Their Properties
65.4 Behavior of Oil in the Environment
65.5 Analysis, Detection, and Remote Sensing of Oil Spills
65.6 Containment on Water
65.7 Oil Recovery on Water
65.8 Separation, Pumping, Decontamination, and Disposal
65.9 Spill-Treating Agents
65.10 In Situ Burning
65.11 Shoreline Cleanup and Restoration
65.12 Oil Spills on Land
References
66 Pipeline Abandonment
Alan Pentney and Dean Carnes
66.1 What Is Pipeline Abandonment?
66.2 Abandonment Planning
66.3 Procedures for Abandoning Pipelines and Related Facilities
66.4 Post-Abandonment Physical Issues
66.5 Post-Abandonment Care
References
PART IX RISK MANAGEMENT
67 Risk Management of Pipelines
Lynne C. Kaley
67.1 Overview
67.2 Qualitative and Quantitative RBI Approaches
67.3 Development of Inspection Programs
67.4 Putting RBI into Practice
67.5 Conclusion: Evaluating RBI Methodologies
References
Bibliography
68 Offshore Pipeline Risk, Corrosion, and Integrity Management with Lessons Learned
Binder Singh and Ben Poblete
68.1 Introduction
68.2 Challenges, Lessons, and Solutions
68.3 Life Cycle
68.4 Case Histories
68.5 Codes, Standards, Recommended Practices, and Regulations
68.6 Corrosion Risk Analysis, Inspection, and Monitoring Methodologies
68.7 Lessons Learned, Recommendations, and Future Strategies
Caveat and Acknowledgments
References
Bibliography
69 Pipeline Operational Intrusions
Errol R. A. Eccles
69.1 Introduction
69.2 Operations Management and Risk
69.3 Risk Assessment
69.4 Operations Management
69.5 Process Safety Management
69.6 Work Management
69.7 Emergency and Incident Management
69.8 Management of Change (MOC)
69.9 Competence
69.10 Risk Management
69.11 Information Technology (IT)
69.12 Summary
69.13 Terms and Definitions
Acknowledgments
References
PART X CASE HISTORIES
70 Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking on Onshore Pipelines Driven by Cathodic Protection - Case Studies
Pablo Cazenave, Katina Jimenez, Ming Gao, and Ravi Krishnamurthy
70.1 Background
70.2 Investigation of a Gas Transmission Pipeline Failure in Argentina
70.3 Mechanisms of Cracking
70.4 Similar Cases in Europe, North America, and the Literature
70.5 Effects of CP-related Hydrogen on Other Types of Cracking
70.6 Mitigation strategies
70.7 Closing remarks
References
71 Buckling of Pipelines under Repair Sleeves: A Case Study-Analysis of the Problem and Cost-Effective Solutions
Arnold L. Lewis II
71.1 Introduction
71.2 Study Conclusions
71.3 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
72 Shell FLAGS Inspection Case Study
J. Nonemaker, T. Steinvoorte, and R. Subramanian
72.1 Introduction
72.2 The Challenge
72.3 The Solution
72.4 Field Work
72.5 Result
73 Deepwater, High-Pressure and Multi-Diameter Pipelines - A Challenging In-Line Inspection Project
Luciano Baptista, Tom Steinvoorte, Stephan Harmsen, and Carlos Enrique Sabido
73.1 Introduction
73.2 Background
73.3 Challenge
73.4 Solution
73.5 Scope
73.6 Tool Design
73.7 Testing
73.8 Gauging and Inspection Runs
73.9 Benefit
References
GLOSSARY
Part 1: Abbreviations
Part 2: Selected Terms
CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE
PART I DIGITALIZATION OF PIPELINES
1 Digital Future of Pipeline Integrity
Gaurav Singh
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Digital Integrity Framework
1.3 Fast Forward Digital Future Technologies
1.4 Technology Transition with Energy Transition
References
2 Cybersecurity and Safety Implications of Pipelines
Ben Miller and Jason Christopher
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Defining Industrial Cybersecurity
2.3 The Industrial Cybersecurity Challenge
2.4 Industrial Intrusion Case Studies - A Short History
2.5 Industrial Cybersecurity Considerations for Pipeline Operations
2.6 The Five ICS Cybersecurity Critical Controls
2.7 Getting Started: Common High-Impact Scenarios for Pipeline Operations
2.8 Conclusion
References
3 Practical Applications of Machine Learning to Pipeline Integrity
Michael Gloven
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Machine Learning Fundamentals
3.3 Supervised Learning - Classification
3.4 Supervised Learning - Regression
3.5 Unsupervised Learning
3.6 Final Thoughts
3.7 Summary
References
Bibliography
4 Pipeline Corrosion Management, Artificial Intelligence, and Machine Learning
Khairul Chowdhury, Binder Singh, and Shahidullah Kawsar
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Background
4.3 Analysis Tool: Automated Predictive Analytics Computation Systems
4.4 Problem Example: Predicting Failure by External and Internal Corrosion
4.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
PART II DESIGN
5 CO2 Pipeline Transportation: Managing the Safe Repurposing of Vintage Pipelines in a Low-Carbon Economy
Daniel Sandana
5.1 Introduction
5.2 CCUS: An Enabler of Decarbonization
5.3 Transportation of CO2 by Pipeline: Operations
5.4 CO2 Pipeline Transportation: Key Integrity Challenges
5.5 Managing the Safe Repurposing of Vintage Pipelines
References
6 Pipeline Integrity Management Systems (PIMS)
Katherine Jonsson, Ray Goodfellow, Douglas Evans, and Chitman Lutchman
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lessons Learned and the Evolution of Pipeline Integrity
6.3 Regulatory Requirements
6.4 What is a PIMS?
6.5 Core Structure and PIMS Elements
6.6 PIMS Function Map
6.7 Plan: Strategic and Operational
6.8 Do: Execute
6.9 Check: Assurance and Verification
6.10 Act: Management Review
6.11 Culture
6.12 Summary
References
7 SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
Rumi Mohammad, Ian Verhappen, and Ramin Vali
7.1 Introduction
7.2 SCADA Computer Servers
7.3 SCADA Computer Workstations
7.4 Hierarchy
7.5 Runtime and Configuration Databases
7.6 Fault Tolerance
7.7 Redundancy
7.8 High Availability
7.9 Human Factors Design in SCADA Systems
7.10 Alarm Rationalization, Management, and Analysis
7.11 Incident Review and Replay
7.12 Data Quality
7.13 Operator Logbook and Shift Handover
7.14 Training
7.15 SCADA Security
7.16 Cybersecurity
7.17 SCADA Standards
7.18 Pipeline Industry Applications
7.19 Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence
7.20 Communication Media
7.21 Communications Infrastructure
7.22 Communications Integrity
7.23 RTUs and PLCs
7.24 Database
7.25 User-Defined Programs
7.26 RTU/PLC Integrity
7.27 Safety Systems
7.28 IOT/IIOT
7.29 Electrical Classification Compliance
Acronyms, Abbreviations, Terms
Bibliography
8 Material Selection for Fracture Control
William Tyson
8.1 Overview of Fracture Control
8.2 Toughness Requirements: Initiation
8.3 Toughness Requirements: Propagation
8.4 Toughness Measurement
8.5 Current Status
References
9 Strain-Based Design of Pipelines
Nader Yoosef-Ghodsi
9.1 Introduction and Basic Concepts
9.2 Strain Demand
9.3 Strain Capacity
9.4 Role of Full-Scale and Curved Wide Plate Testing
9.5 Summary
References
10 Stress-Based Design of Pipelines
Mavis Sika Okyere
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Design Pressure
10.3 Design Factor
10.4 Determination of Components of Stress
10.5 Fatigue
10.6 Expansion and Flexibility
10.7 Corrosion Allowance
10.8 Pipeline Stiffness
10.9 Pipeline Ovality
10.10 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius
10.11 Pipeline Design for External Pressure
10.12 Check for Hydrotest Conditions
10.13 Summary
Appendix 10.A: Case Study
References
11 Spiral Welded Pipes for Shallow Offshore Applications
Ayman Eltaher
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Limitations of the Technology Feasibility
11.3 Challenges of Offshore Applications
11.4 Typical Pipe Properties
11.5 Technology Qualification
11.6 Additional Resources
11.7 Summary
References
12 Residual Stress in Pipelines
Douglas Hornbach and Paul Prevey
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Influence of Residual Stresses on Performance
12.3 Residual Stress Measurement
12.4 Control and Alteration of Residual Stresses
12.5 Case Studies of the Effect of Residual Stress and Cold Work
References
13 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Modeling in Support of Pipeline Engineering Design and Integrity
Shawn Kenny and Paul Jukes
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Site Characterization and Geotechnical Engineering in Relation to Pipeline System Response Analysis
13.3 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Analysis and Design
Acknowledgments
References
14 Human Factors
Lorna Harron
14.1 Introduction
14.2 What Is "Human Factors"?
14.3 The Human in the System
14.4 Life Cycle Approach to Human Factors
14.5 Human Factors and Decision Making
14.6 Application of Human Factors Guidance
14.7 Heuristics and Biases in Decision Making
14.8 Human Factors Contribution to Incidents in the Pipeline Industry
14.9 Human Factors Life Cycle Revisited
14.10 Tools and Methods
14.11 Summary
References
Bibliography
PART III NONMETALLIC PIPELINES
15 Nonmetallic Composite Pipelines
Niels Grigat, Stephan Koss, Ben Vollbrecht, Tim Moelling, Johannes Henrich Schleifenbaum, and Thomas Gries
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Materials
15.3 Manufacturing
15.4 Applications
15.5 Conclusion
References
PART IV MANUFACTURE, FABRICATION, AND CONSTRUCTION
16 Microstructure and Texture Development in Pipeline Steels
Roumen H. Petrov, John J. Jonas, Leo A.I. Kestens, and J. Malcolm Gray
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Short History of Pipeline Steel Development
16.3 Texture Control in Pipeline Steels
16.4 Effect of Texture on In-Plane Anisotropy
16.5 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
17 Pipe Manufacture-Longitudinal Submerged Arc Welded Large Diameter Pipe
Christoph Kalwa
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Manufacturing Process
17.3 Quality Control Procedures
17.4 Range of Grades and Dimensions
17.5 Typical Fields of Application
18 Pipe Manufacture - Spiral Pipe
Franz Martin Knoop
18.1 Manufacturing Process
18.2 Quality Control Procedures
18.3 Range of Grades and Dimensions
18.4 Typical Fields of Applicability
References
19 Pipe Manufacture-Seamless Tube and Pipe
Rolf Kuemmerling and Klaus Kraemer
19.1 The Rolling Process
19.2 Further Processing
References
20 Design of Steels for Large Diameter Sour Service Pipelines
Nobuyuki Ishikawa
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking of Linepipe Steel and Evaluation Method
20.3 Material Design of Linepipe Steel with HIC Resistance
20.4 Material Design of Linepipe Steel with SSC Resistance under Severe Sour Conditions
References
21 Pipeline Welding from the Perspective of Safety and Integrity
David Dorling and James Gianetto
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Construction Welding Applications
21.2.1 Double-Joint Welding
21.2.2 Mainline Welding
21.2.3 Tie-In and Repair Welding
21.3 Non-destructive Inspection and Flaw Assessment
21.4 Welding Procedure and Welder Qualification
21.5 Hydrogen Control in Welds and the Prevention of Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking
21.6 Important Considerations for Qualifying Welding Procedures to a Strain-Based Design
21.7 Welding on In-Service Pipelines
21.8 Pipeline Incidents and Recent Industry and Regulatory Preventative Action
Appendix 21.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter
Appendix 21.B: Regulations, Codes, and Standards
Acknowledgements
References
22 The Effect of Installation on Offshore Pipeline Integrity
Robert O'Grady
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Installation Methods and Pipeline Behaviour During Installation
22.3 Critical Factors Governing Installation
22.4 Installation Analysis and Design Methodologies
22.5 Monitoring the Installation Process Offshore
22.6 Implications of Deeper Water on Installation
Reference
Bibliography
PART V THREATS TO INTEGRITY AND SAFETY
23 Top of the Line Corrosion (TLC): Causes and Mechanisms
Aisha H. Al-Moubaraki and Ime Bassey Obot
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Fundamentals of TLC
References
24 Management of Geohazard Loading during Pipeline Operation
Andy Young
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Nature of Hazards
24.3 Regulations on Geohazard Management
24.4 Geohazards Management Plan
24.5 Hazard Identification
24.6 Hazard Evaluation
24.7 Hazard Mitigation
References
25 Climate Change, Pipeline Corrosion, and Integrity Management
Binder Singh
25.1 Introduction
25.2 ALARP Factor
25.3 Natural or Man-Made?
25.4 Engineering Steel and Infrastructure
25.5 Reasons for Optimism
25.6 Discussion and Closing Remarks
Caveat and Acknowledgements
Appendix 25.A Acronyms, Definitions, and Criteria
Appendix 25.B Main Corrosion Terms: Modes and Mechanisms
References
Bibliography
26 External Corrosion of Pipelines in Soil
Homero Castaneda, Hui Wang, and Omar Rosas
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Background
26.3 Critical Factors of Soil Corrosivity that Affect Pipelines
26.4 Identifying Corrosive Environments
26.5 Cathodic Protection and Stray Currents
26.6 Monitoring and Inspection for Corrosion Characterization under Multiscale Conditions
References
27 Knowledge- and Data-Driven External Corrosion Modeling in Pipelines
Hui Wang, Homero Castaneda, and Sreelakshmi Sreeharan
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Background
27.3 Model Framework and Theory
27.4 Model Application
27.5 Limitations of the Approach
27.6 Conclusion
References
28 Electrochemical Noise to Monitor Corrosion of a Coated Metal
Sarah Leeds
28.1 Introduction
28.1.1 Protective Coatings
28.1.2 History of Electrochemical Noise
28.1.3 What is Electrochemical Noise?
28.2 Electrochemical Noise Method
28.3 Applications of ECN
28.3.1 Examples of the Application of Electrochemical Noise
Acknowledgments
References
29 Telluric Influence on Pipelines
David H. Boteler and Larisa Trichtchenko
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Review of the Existing Knowledge on Pipeline-Telluric Interference
29.3 Geomagnetic Sources of Telluric Activity
29.4 Earth Resistivity Influence on Telluric Activity
29.5 Pipeline Response to Telluric Electric Fields
29.6 Telluric Hazard Assessment
29.7 Mitigation/Compensation of Telluric Effects
29.8 Knowledge Gaps/Open Questions
29.9 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
30 Factors Controlling Stress Corrosion Cracking and Typical Growth Rates
B N Leis
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Research Concerning the Factors Controlling SCC
30.3 Factors Controlling SCC - Service vs Laboratory Cracking
30.4 Quantifying a Bathtub Speed-Life Curve for High-pH SCC
30.5 Emergence of NN-pH SCC: Its Traits vs High-pH SCC
30.6 Industry Guidance on Crack Speed and the Incidence of SCC
30.6.2 Where and When SCC Might Be Anticipated
30.7 Interface between Integrity and Condition Assessment
30.8 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
31 Processes for High-pH and Near-Neutral-pH Stress Corrosion Cracking
B N Leis
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Imaging SCC and Related Observations
31.3 Compendium of SCC Images: Observations and Discussion
31.4 Crack Initiation and Growth Behavior on Pipelines
31.5 Summary and Key Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
32 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
Jason S. Lee and Brenda J. Little
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Materials
32.3 Microorganisms
32.4 Internal Corrosion of Pipelines
32.5 External Corrosion of Pipelines
32.6 Conclusions
References
33 Progression of Pitting Corrosion and Structural Reliability of Welded Steel Pipelines
Robert E. Melchers
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Asset Management and Prediction
33.3 Pitting
33.4 Model for Long-Term Growth in Pit Depth
33.5 Factors Influencing Maximum Pit Depth Development
33.6 Structural Reliability
33.7 Extreme Value Analysis for Maximum Pit Depth
33.8 Pitting at Welds
33.9 Case Study-Water Injection Pipelines
33.10 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
34 Mechanical Damage in Pipelines: A Review of the Methods and Improvements in Characterization, Evaluation, and Mitigation
Ming Gao and Ravi Krishnamurthy
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Dent Formation Process and Types of Dents
34.3 In-Line-Inspection (ILI) Technologies for Mechanical Damage Characterization
34.4 Technologies for In-Ditch Mechanical Damage Characterization
34.5 Assessment of Severity of Mechanical Damage
34.6 Mitigation and Repairs
34.7 Continued Challenges
References
35 Sulfide Stress Cracking
Russell D. Kane
35.1 Introduction
35.2 What Is Sulfide Stress Cracking?
35.3 Basics of Sulfide Stress Cracking in Pipelines
35.4 Comparison of SSC to Other Sour Cracking Mechanisms
35.5 Influence of Environmental Variables on SSC
35.6 Influence of Metallurgical Variables on SSC in Steels
35.7 Use of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys to Resist SSC
References
36 Stress Corrosion Cracking of Steel Equipment in Ethanol Service
Russell D. Kane
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Factors Affecting Susceptibility to Ethanol SCC
36.3 Occurrences and Consequences of eSCC
36.4 Guidelines for Identification, Mitigation, and Repair of eSCC
36.5 Path Forward
References
Bibliography of Additional eSCC Papers
37 AC Corrosion
Lars Vendelbo Nielsen
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Basic Understanding
37.3 AC Corrosion Risk Assessment and Management
References
Bibliography
38 Erosion-Corrosion in Oil and Gas Pipelines
Siamack A. Shirazi, Brenton S. McLaury, John R. Shadley, Kenneth P. Roberts, Edmund F. Rybicki, Hernan E. Rincon, Shokrollah Hassani, Faisal M. Al-Mutahar, and Gusai H. Al-Aithan
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Solid Particle Erosion
38.3 Erosion-Corrosion of Carbon Steel Piping in a CO2 Environment with Sand
38.4 Erosion-Corrosion Modeling and Characterization of Iron Carbonate Erosivity
38.5 Erosion-Corrosion of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys
38.6 Chemical Inhibition of Erosion-Corrosion
38.7 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
39 Black Powder in Oil and Gas Pipelines
Abdelmounam M. Sherik
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Impacts on Operations and Customers
39.3 Internal Corrosion of Sales Gas Transmission Pipelines
39.4 Analysis Techniques
39.5 Black Powder Movement
39.6 Erosive Properties of Black Powder
39.7 Black Powder Management Methods
39.9 Guidance on Handling and Disposal of Black Powder
39.10 Solutions
39.11 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
PART VI PROTECTION
40 Mitigating Top of the Line Corrosion (TLC) Using Corrosion Inhibitors: Types and Application Methods
Aisha H. Al-Moubaraki and Ime Bassey Obot
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Inhibitors Used to Mitigate TLC
40.3 Application Methods for Corrosion Inhibitors under TLC Conditions
References
41 External Coatings
Doug Waslen
41.1 Introduction and Background
41.2 Coating Performance
41.3 Product Testing
41.4 Standards and Application Specification
41.5 Field-Applied Coatings
41.6 Coating Types and Application
Reference
42 Thermoplastic Liners For Oilfield Pipelines
James F. Mason
42.1 Introduction
42.2 Codes and Standards
42.3 The Installation Process
42.4 Important Mechanical Design Aspects
42.5 Liner Materials
42.6 Operating a Pipeline with a Liner
42.7 Lined Pipeline Systems-Application Examples
References
43 Cathodic Protection
Sarah Leeds
43.1 Introduction
43.2 Historical Foundation of Cathodic Protection
43.3 Fundamentals of Cathodic Protection
43.4 How Cathodic Protection Is Applied
43.5 Design Principles of Cathodic Protection
43.6 Protective Coatings and Cathodic Protection
43.7 Monitoring Cathodic Protection Systems
43.8 Cathodic Protection Criteria
References
PART VII INSPECTION AND MONITORING
44 Using Cathodic Protection for Real-Time Detection of Mechanical Damage and Interference
Gerard Huss, Carine Lacroix, Eric Parizot, and David Xu
44.1 Introduction
44.2 Background
44.3 Testing Procedure and Process
44.4 Real-Time Detection of an Electrical Short between a Pipeline and Its Casing
44.5 Real-Time Detection of Mechanical Aggression on a Pipeline
44.6 Real-Time Detection of a Lightning Strike
44.7 Discussion
References
45 Airborne LiDAR for Pipeline Inspection and Leak Detection
Ashwin Yerasi
45.1 Introduction
45.2 LiDAR Measurements
45.3 Wavelength Bands
45.4 Operational Techniques
45.5 Ancillary Components
45.6 Inspection Report
45.7 LiDAR Developments for Natural Gas Pipeline Leak Surveillance
Appendix 45.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter
References
46 3D-Geolocalization by Magnetometry Using UAS: A Novel Method for Buried Pipeline Mapping and Bending Strain Assessment
Mehdi M. LAICHOUBI, Hamza KELLA BENNANI, Ludovic Berthelot, Vincent BENET, Miaohang HU, Michel PINET, and Samir TAKILLAH
46.1 Introduction
46.2 3D-Localisation and Depth of Cover Assessment
46.3 Materials and Methods
46.4 Case Study and Operating Procedure
46.5 Performance of the 3D-Localisation
46.6 Generalized Study on Eight GRTgaz Pipeline Spots
46.7 Bending Strain Assessment
46.8 Drone-Based Bending Strain (DBBS) Case Study
46.9 Conclusion
References
47 Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors for Pipeline Inspection and Monitoring
Nageswara Lalam and Ruishu Wright
47.1 Introduction
47.2 Distributed Strain and Temperature Sensing (DSTS)
47.3 Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS)
47.4 Distributed Chemical Sensing for Corrosion and Corrosivity Monitoring
47.5 Challenges and Opportunities
47.6 Conclusion
References
48 Direct Assessment
John A. Beavers, Lynsay A. Bensman, and Angel R. Kowalski
48.1 Introduction
48.2 External Corrosion DA (ECDA)
48.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking DA (SCCDA)
48.4 Internal Corrosion DA (ICDA)
References
49 Internal Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes
Daniel E. Powell
49.1 Introduction-Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes
49.2 Corrosion Coupons and Electrical Resistance Corrosion Probes
49.3 Placing Corrosion Monitoring Coupons or Electronic Probes within Pipelines
49.4 Monitoring Results "Drive" Chemical Treatment and Maintenance Pigging Programs
49.5 Relative Sensitivities of NDT versus Internal Corrosion Monitoring Techniques
49.6 Seek Consistency between Internal Corrosion Monitoring and NDT Results - Confirm Trends
49.7 Look for Consistency: Fluid Sample Analysis Should Complement and Verify Monitoring Results
49.8 Summary
49.9 Definitions of Corrosion Monitoring Terms from NACE 3T199 (c) NACE International 2012
References
50 In-Line Inspection (ILI) ("Intelligent Pigging")
Neb I. Uzelac
50.1 Introduction
50.2 Place of ILI in Pipeline Integrity Management
50.3 Running ILI Tools
50.4 Types of ILI Tools and Their Purpose
50.5 Utilizing ILI Data/Verification
50.6 Integrating ILI Data
Appendix 50.A: Sample Pipeline Inspection Questionnaire (Nonmandatory)
References
Bibliography: Journals, Conferences and Other Sources with ILI Related Content
51 Inspection of Offshore Pipelines
Konrad Reber
51.1 The Inspection Challenge in Offshore Pipelines
51.2 Internal Inspection of Offshore Pipelines
51.3 External Inspection Methods for Subsea Pipelines
51.4 Inspection of Risers
51.5 Conclusions
References
52 Tethered Inspection of Riser System for Wall Thickness and Cracks
A. Enters, T.-S. Kristiansen, and U. Schneider
52.1 Introduction
52.2 Tethered Tool Principle
52.3 Case Study: 10-Inch Rigid Offshore Oil Riser Inspection for Wall Thickness and Cracks
52.4 The Reinspection Project
52.5 Summary and Benefits
Reference
53 Eddy Current Testing in Pipeline Inspection
KONRAD REBER
53.1 Standard Eddy Current Testing
53.2 Enhanced Eddy Current Testing
53.3 Applications for Pipeline Inspection
References
54 Unpiggable Pipelines
Tom Steinvoorte
54.1 Introduction
54.2 Challenging Pipeline Inspection Approach
54.3 Free-Swimming ILI Tools for Challenging Pipeline Inspections
54.4 Self-Propelled Inspection Solutions
References
Bibliography: Sources of Additional Information
55 In-The-Ditch Pipeline Inspection
Greg Zinter
55.1 Overview
55.2 Introduction to Nondestructive Examination of Pipelines
55.3 NDE and a Pipeline Integrity Program
55.4 Pipeline Coatings
55.5 Types of Anomalies
55.6 NDE Measurement Technologies
55.7 Excavation Package
55.8 Data Collection
55.9 Conducting In-the-Ditch Assessment
55.10 Data Management
55.11 Recent Technological Developments
55.12 Summary
Acknowledgments
Reference
Bibliography
56 Flaw Assessment
Ted L. Anderson
56.1 Overview
56.1.1 Why Are Flaws Detrimental?
56.2 Assessing Metal Loss
56.3 Crack Assessment
56.4 Dents
References
57 Integrity Management of Pipeline Facilities
Greg Szuch, Mike Reed, and Keith Leewis
57.1 Introduction
57.2 Elements of a F-IMP
57.3 Building a Facility Integrity Plan
57.4 Final Thoughts
References
Bibliography: Essential Reading
58 Pipeline Geohazard Detection Using Satellite InSAR
Murray Down and Jon Leighton
58.1 Introduction: Why InSAR for Pipelines
58.2 Satelllite InSAR Simplified
58.3 Specifying InSAR Requirements
Bibliography
59 Integrity Management of Pipelines with Cracking
Michael Palmer
59.1 Introduction
59.2 What Are Cracks and How Do We Find Them?
59.3 Integrity Assessment of Cracks
59.4 What Can Be Done to Manage the Integrity of a Pipeline with Cracks?
References
PART VIII MAINTENANCE, REPAIR, REPLACEMENT, REUSE, AND ABANDONMENT
60 Hydrogen and the Energy Transition
Neil Gallon and Adrian Horsley
60.1 Introduction
60.2 Hydrogen Storage and Transport
60.3 Designing or Repurposing a Hydrogen Pipeline
60.4 Differences in the Integrity Management Approach between Hydrogen and Natural Gas Pipelines
60.4.1 Probability of Failure
60.4.2 Consequence
60.4.3 Implications for Integrity Management in Hydrogen
References
61 Pipeline Cleaning
Randy L. Roberts
61.1 Introduction
61.2 Contaminates
61.3 Progressive Pigging
61.4 Pig Types
61.5 Durometer
61.6 Mechanical and Liquid (Chemical) Cleaning
61.7 On-Line or Off-Line
61.8 Cleaning a Pipeline
61.9 How Clean Do I Need to Be?
61.10 Summary
References
62 Managing an Aging Pipeline Infrastructure
Brian N. Leis
62.1 Introduction
62.2 Background
62.3 Evolution of Line Pipe Steel, Pipe Making, and Pipeline Construction
62.4 Pipeline System Expansion and the Implications for "Older" Pipelines
62.5 The Evolution of Pipeline Codes and Standards, and Regulations
62.6 Some Unique Aspects of Early and Vintage Pipelines
62.7 Management Approach and Challenges
62.8 Closure
Acknowledgments
References
63 Pipeline Repair Using Full-Encirclement Repair Sleeves
William A. Bruce, Melissa Gould, and John Kiefner
63.1 Introduction
63.2 Background
63.3 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves
63.4 Comparison of Steel Sleeves and Fiber Reinforced Composite Repairs
63.5 Welding onto an In-Service Pipeline
63.6 Summary and Conclusions
References
64 Pipeline Repair
Robert Smyth and David Futch
64.1 Introduction
64.2 Background
64.3 Defect Identification
64.4 Safety
64.5 Protocols
64.6 Recoat
64.7 Pipe Replacement
64.8 Grinding/Sanding
64.9 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves, Type A and B
64.10 Epoxy-Filled Sleeves
64.11 Steel Compression Sleeves
64.12 Composite Reinforcement Sleeves
64.12.1 Designing an Effective Composite Repair
64.13 Thin Sheet Steel Coil Wrap
64.14 Hot Tapping
64.15 Direct Deposition Welding
64.16 Mechanical Clamps
64.17 Temporary Repairs
64.18 Applicability to Various Defect Types
References
65 Pipeline Oil Spill Cleanup
Merv Fingas
65.1 Oil Spills and Pipelines: An Overview
65.2 Response to Oil Spills
65.3 Types of Oil and Their Properties
65.4 Behavior of Oil in the Environment
65.5 Analysis, Detection, and Remote Sensing of Oil Spills
65.6 Containment on Water
65.7 Oil Recovery on Water
65.8 Separation, Pumping, Decontamination, and Disposal
65.9 Spill-Treating Agents
65.10 In Situ Burning
65.11 Shoreline Cleanup and Restoration
65.12 Oil Spills on Land
References
66 Pipeline Abandonment
Alan Pentney and Dean Carnes
66.1 What Is Pipeline Abandonment?
66.2 Abandonment Planning
66.3 Procedures for Abandoning Pipelines and Related Facilities
66.4 Post-Abandonment Physical Issues
66.5 Post-Abandonment Care
References
PART IX RISK MANAGEMENT
67 Risk Management of Pipelines
Lynne C. Kaley
67.1 Overview
67.2 Qualitative and Quantitative RBI Approaches
67.3 Development of Inspection Programs
67.4 Putting RBI into Practice
67.5 Conclusion: Evaluating RBI Methodologies
References
Bibliography
68 Offshore Pipeline Risk, Corrosion, and Integrity Management with Lessons Learned
Binder Singh and Ben Poblete
68.1 Introduction
68.2 Challenges, Lessons, and Solutions
68.3 Life Cycle
68.4 Case Histories
68.5 Codes, Standards, Recommended Practices, and Regulations
68.6 Corrosion Risk Analysis, Inspection, and Monitoring Methodologies
68.7 Lessons Learned, Recommendations, and Future Strategies
Caveat and Acknowledgments
References
Bibliography
69 Pipeline Operational Intrusions
Errol R. A. Eccles
69.1 Introduction
69.2 Operations Management and Risk
69.3 Risk Assessment
69.4 Operations Management
69.5 Process Safety Management
69.6 Work Management
69.7 Emergency and Incident Management
69.8 Management of Change (MOC)
69.9 Competence
69.10 Risk Management
69.11 Information Technology (IT)
69.12 Summary
69.13 Terms and Definitions
Acknowledgments
References
PART X CASE HISTORIES
70 Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking on Onshore Pipelines Driven by Cathodic Protection - Case Studies
Pablo Cazenave, Katina Jimenez, Ming Gao, and Ravi Krishnamurthy
70.1 Background
70.2 Investigation of a Gas Transmission Pipeline Failure in Argentina
70.3 Mechanisms of Cracking
70.4 Similar Cases in Europe, North America, and the Literature
70.5 Effects of CP-related Hydrogen on Other Types of Cracking
70.6 Mitigation strategies
70.7 Closing remarks
References
71 Buckling of Pipelines under Repair Sleeves: A Case Study-Analysis of the Problem and Cost-Effective Solutions
Arnold L. Lewis II
71.1 Introduction
71.2 Study Conclusions
71.3 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
72 Shell FLAGS Inspection Case Study
J. Nonemaker, T. Steinvoorte, and R. Subramanian
72.1 Introduction
72.2 The Challenge
72.3 The Solution
72.4 Field Work
72.5 Result
73 Deepwater, High-Pressure and Multi-Diameter Pipelines - A Challenging In-Line Inspection Project
Luciano Baptista, Tom Steinvoorte, Stephan Harmsen, and Carlos Enrique Sabido
73.1 Introduction
73.2 Background
73.3 Challenge
73.4 Solution
73.5 Scope
73.6 Tool Design
73.7 Testing
73.8 Gauging and Inspection Runs
73.9 Benefit
References
GLOSSARY
Part 1: Abbreviations
Part 2: Selected Terms
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Pipeline integrity; pipeline corrosion; vintage pipeline; low-carbon economy; pipeline integrity management system; nonmetallic pipeline; pipeline welding; top of the line corrosion; cathodic protection; unpiggable pipeline; pipeline repair; energy transition
CONTENTS
CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE
PART I DIGITALIZATION OF PIPELINES
1 Digital Future of Pipeline Integrity
Gaurav Singh
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Digital Integrity Framework
1.3 Fast Forward Digital Future Technologies
1.4 Technology Transition with Energy Transition
References
2 Cybersecurity and Safety Implications of Pipelines
Ben Miller and Jason Christopher
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Defining Industrial Cybersecurity
2.3 The Industrial Cybersecurity Challenge
2.4 Industrial Intrusion Case Studies - A Short History
2.5 Industrial Cybersecurity Considerations for Pipeline Operations
2.6 The Five ICS Cybersecurity Critical Controls
2.7 Getting Started: Common High-Impact Scenarios for Pipeline Operations
2.8 Conclusion
References
3 Practical Applications of Machine Learning to Pipeline Integrity
Michael Gloven
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Machine Learning Fundamentals
3.3 Supervised Learning - Classification
3.4 Supervised Learning - Regression
3.5 Unsupervised Learning
3.6 Final Thoughts
3.7 Summary
References
Bibliography
4 Pipeline Corrosion Management, Artificial Intelligence, and Machine Learning
Khairul Chowdhury, Binder Singh, and Shahidullah Kawsar
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Background
4.3 Analysis Tool: Automated Predictive Analytics Computation Systems
4.4 Problem Example: Predicting Failure by External and Internal Corrosion
4.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
PART II DESIGN
5 CO2 Pipeline Transportation: Managing the Safe Repurposing of Vintage Pipelines in a Low-Carbon Economy
Daniel Sandana
5.1 Introduction
5.2 CCUS: An Enabler of Decarbonization
5.3 Transportation of CO2 by Pipeline: Operations
5.4 CO2 Pipeline Transportation: Key Integrity Challenges
5.5 Managing the Safe Repurposing of Vintage Pipelines
References
6 Pipeline Integrity Management Systems (PIMS)
Katherine Jonsson, Ray Goodfellow, Douglas Evans, and Chitman Lutchman
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lessons Learned and the Evolution of Pipeline Integrity
6.3 Regulatory Requirements
6.4 What is a PIMS?
6.5 Core Structure and PIMS Elements
6.6 PIMS Function Map
6.7 Plan: Strategic and Operational
6.8 Do: Execute
6.9 Check: Assurance and Verification
6.10 Act: Management Review
6.11 Culture
6.12 Summary
References
7 SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
Rumi Mohammad, Ian Verhappen, and Ramin Vali
7.1 Introduction
7.2 SCADA Computer Servers
7.3 SCADA Computer Workstations
7.4 Hierarchy
7.5 Runtime and Configuration Databases
7.6 Fault Tolerance
7.7 Redundancy
7.8 High Availability
7.9 Human Factors Design in SCADA Systems
7.10 Alarm Rationalization, Management, and Analysis
7.11 Incident Review and Replay
7.12 Data Quality
7.13 Operator Logbook and Shift Handover
7.14 Training
7.15 SCADA Security
7.16 Cybersecurity
7.17 SCADA Standards
7.18 Pipeline Industry Applications
7.19 Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence
7.20 Communication Media
7.21 Communications Infrastructure
7.22 Communications Integrity
7.23 RTUs and PLCs
7.24 Database
7.25 User-Defined Programs
7.26 RTU/PLC Integrity
7.27 Safety Systems
7.28 IOT/IIOT
7.29 Electrical Classification Compliance
Acronyms, Abbreviations, Terms
Bibliography
8 Material Selection for Fracture Control
William Tyson
8.1 Overview of Fracture Control
8.2 Toughness Requirements: Initiation
8.3 Toughness Requirements: Propagation
8.4 Toughness Measurement
8.5 Current Status
References
9 Strain-Based Design of Pipelines
Nader Yoosef-Ghodsi
9.1 Introduction and Basic Concepts
9.2 Strain Demand
9.3 Strain Capacity
9.4 Role of Full-Scale and Curved Wide Plate Testing
9.5 Summary
References
10 Stress-Based Design of Pipelines
Mavis Sika Okyere
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Design Pressure
10.3 Design Factor
10.4 Determination of Components of Stress
10.5 Fatigue
10.6 Expansion and Flexibility
10.7 Corrosion Allowance
10.8 Pipeline Stiffness
10.9 Pipeline Ovality
10.10 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius
10.11 Pipeline Design for External Pressure
10.12 Check for Hydrotest Conditions
10.13 Summary
Appendix 10.A: Case Study
References
11 Spiral Welded Pipes for Shallow Offshore Applications
Ayman Eltaher
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Limitations of the Technology Feasibility
11.3 Challenges of Offshore Applications
11.4 Typical Pipe Properties
11.5 Technology Qualification
11.6 Additional Resources
11.7 Summary
References
12 Residual Stress in Pipelines
Douglas Hornbach and Paul Prevey
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Influence of Residual Stresses on Performance
12.3 Residual Stress Measurement
12.4 Control and Alteration of Residual Stresses
12.5 Case Studies of the Effect of Residual Stress and Cold Work
References
13 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Modeling in Support of Pipeline Engineering Design and Integrity
Shawn Kenny and Paul Jukes
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Site Characterization and Geotechnical Engineering in Relation to Pipeline System Response Analysis
13.3 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Analysis and Design
Acknowledgments
References
14 Human Factors
Lorna Harron
14.1 Introduction
14.2 What Is "Human Factors"?
14.3 The Human in the System
14.4 Life Cycle Approach to Human Factors
14.5 Human Factors and Decision Making
14.6 Application of Human Factors Guidance
14.7 Heuristics and Biases in Decision Making
14.8 Human Factors Contribution to Incidents in the Pipeline Industry
14.9 Human Factors Life Cycle Revisited
14.10 Tools and Methods
14.11 Summary
References
Bibliography
PART III NONMETALLIC PIPELINES
15 Nonmetallic Composite Pipelines
Niels Grigat, Stephan Koss, Ben Vollbrecht, Tim Moelling, Johannes Henrich Schleifenbaum, and Thomas Gries
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Materials
15.3 Manufacturing
15.4 Applications
15.5 Conclusion
References
PART IV MANUFACTURE, FABRICATION, AND CONSTRUCTION
16 Microstructure and Texture Development in Pipeline Steels
Roumen H. Petrov, John J. Jonas, Leo A.I. Kestens, and J. Malcolm Gray
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Short History of Pipeline Steel Development
16.3 Texture Control in Pipeline Steels
16.4 Effect of Texture on In-Plane Anisotropy
16.5 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
17 Pipe Manufacture-Longitudinal Submerged Arc Welded Large Diameter Pipe
Christoph Kalwa
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Manufacturing Process
17.3 Quality Control Procedures
17.4 Range of Grades and Dimensions
17.5 Typical Fields of Application
18 Pipe Manufacture - Spiral Pipe
Franz Martin Knoop
18.1 Manufacturing Process
18.2 Quality Control Procedures
18.3 Range of Grades and Dimensions
18.4 Typical Fields of Applicability
References
19 Pipe Manufacture-Seamless Tube and Pipe
Rolf Kuemmerling and Klaus Kraemer
19.1 The Rolling Process
19.2 Further Processing
References
20 Design of Steels for Large Diameter Sour Service Pipelines
Nobuyuki Ishikawa
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking of Linepipe Steel and Evaluation Method
20.3 Material Design of Linepipe Steel with HIC Resistance
20.4 Material Design of Linepipe Steel with SSC Resistance under Severe Sour Conditions
References
21 Pipeline Welding from the Perspective of Safety and Integrity
David Dorling and James Gianetto
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Construction Welding Applications
21.2.1 Double-Joint Welding
21.2.2 Mainline Welding
21.2.3 Tie-In and Repair Welding
21.3 Non-destructive Inspection and Flaw Assessment
21.4 Welding Procedure and Welder Qualification
21.5 Hydrogen Control in Welds and the Prevention of Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking
21.6 Important Considerations for Qualifying Welding Procedures to a Strain-Based Design
21.7 Welding on In-Service Pipelines
21.8 Pipeline Incidents and Recent Industry and Regulatory Preventative Action
Appendix 21.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter
Appendix 21.B: Regulations, Codes, and Standards
Acknowledgements
References
22 The Effect of Installation on Offshore Pipeline Integrity
Robert O'Grady
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Installation Methods and Pipeline Behaviour During Installation
22.3 Critical Factors Governing Installation
22.4 Installation Analysis and Design Methodologies
22.5 Monitoring the Installation Process Offshore
22.6 Implications of Deeper Water on Installation
Reference
Bibliography
PART V THREATS TO INTEGRITY AND SAFETY
23 Top of the Line Corrosion (TLC): Causes and Mechanisms
Aisha H. Al-Moubaraki and Ime Bassey Obot
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Fundamentals of TLC
References
24 Management of Geohazard Loading during Pipeline Operation
Andy Young
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Nature of Hazards
24.3 Regulations on Geohazard Management
24.4 Geohazards Management Plan
24.5 Hazard Identification
24.6 Hazard Evaluation
24.7 Hazard Mitigation
References
25 Climate Change, Pipeline Corrosion, and Integrity Management
Binder Singh
25.1 Introduction
25.2 ALARP Factor
25.3 Natural or Man-Made?
25.4 Engineering Steel and Infrastructure
25.5 Reasons for Optimism
25.6 Discussion and Closing Remarks
Caveat and Acknowledgements
Appendix 25.A Acronyms, Definitions, and Criteria
Appendix 25.B Main Corrosion Terms: Modes and Mechanisms
References
Bibliography
26 External Corrosion of Pipelines in Soil
Homero Castaneda, Hui Wang, and Omar Rosas
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Background
26.3 Critical Factors of Soil Corrosivity that Affect Pipelines
26.4 Identifying Corrosive Environments
26.5 Cathodic Protection and Stray Currents
26.6 Monitoring and Inspection for Corrosion Characterization under Multiscale Conditions
References
27 Knowledge- and Data-Driven External Corrosion Modeling in Pipelines
Hui Wang, Homero Castaneda, and Sreelakshmi Sreeharan
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Background
27.3 Model Framework and Theory
27.4 Model Application
27.5 Limitations of the Approach
27.6 Conclusion
References
28 Electrochemical Noise to Monitor Corrosion of a Coated Metal
Sarah Leeds
28.1 Introduction
28.1.1 Protective Coatings
28.1.2 History of Electrochemical Noise
28.1.3 What is Electrochemical Noise?
28.2 Electrochemical Noise Method
28.3 Applications of ECN
28.3.1 Examples of the Application of Electrochemical Noise
Acknowledgments
References
29 Telluric Influence on Pipelines
David H. Boteler and Larisa Trichtchenko
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Review of the Existing Knowledge on Pipeline-Telluric Interference
29.3 Geomagnetic Sources of Telluric Activity
29.4 Earth Resistivity Influence on Telluric Activity
29.5 Pipeline Response to Telluric Electric Fields
29.6 Telluric Hazard Assessment
29.7 Mitigation/Compensation of Telluric Effects
29.8 Knowledge Gaps/Open Questions
29.9 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
30 Factors Controlling Stress Corrosion Cracking and Typical Growth Rates
B N Leis
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Research Concerning the Factors Controlling SCC
30.3 Factors Controlling SCC - Service vs Laboratory Cracking
30.4 Quantifying a Bathtub Speed-Life Curve for High-pH SCC
30.5 Emergence of NN-pH SCC: Its Traits vs High-pH SCC
30.6 Industry Guidance on Crack Speed and the Incidence of SCC
30.6.2 Where and When SCC Might Be Anticipated
30.7 Interface between Integrity and Condition Assessment
30.8 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
31 Processes for High-pH and Near-Neutral-pH Stress Corrosion Cracking
B N Leis
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Imaging SCC and Related Observations
31.3 Compendium of SCC Images: Observations and Discussion
31.4 Crack Initiation and Growth Behavior on Pipelines
31.5 Summary and Key Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
32 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
Jason S. Lee and Brenda J. Little
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Materials
32.3 Microorganisms
32.4 Internal Corrosion of Pipelines
32.5 External Corrosion of Pipelines
32.6 Conclusions
References
33 Progression of Pitting Corrosion and Structural Reliability of Welded Steel Pipelines
Robert E. Melchers
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Asset Management and Prediction
33.3 Pitting
33.4 Model for Long-Term Growth in Pit Depth
33.5 Factors Influencing Maximum Pit Depth Development
33.6 Structural Reliability
33.7 Extreme Value Analysis for Maximum Pit Depth
33.8 Pitting at Welds
33.9 Case Study-Water Injection Pipelines
33.10 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
34 Mechanical Damage in Pipelines: A Review of the Methods and Improvements in Characterization, Evaluation, and Mitigation
Ming Gao and Ravi Krishnamurthy
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Dent Formation Process and Types of Dents
34.3 In-Line-Inspection (ILI) Technologies for Mechanical Damage Characterization
34.4 Technologies for In-Ditch Mechanical Damage Characterization
34.5 Assessment of Severity of Mechanical Damage
34.6 Mitigation and Repairs
34.7 Continued Challenges
References
35 Sulfide Stress Cracking
Russell D. Kane
35.1 Introduction
35.2 What Is Sulfide Stress Cracking?
35.3 Basics of Sulfide Stress Cracking in Pipelines
35.4 Comparison of SSC to Other Sour Cracking Mechanisms
35.5 Influence of Environmental Variables on SSC
35.6 Influence of Metallurgical Variables on SSC in Steels
35.7 Use of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys to Resist SSC
References
36 Stress Corrosion Cracking of Steel Equipment in Ethanol Service
Russell D. Kane
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Factors Affecting Susceptibility to Ethanol SCC
36.3 Occurrences and Consequences of eSCC
36.4 Guidelines for Identification, Mitigation, and Repair of eSCC
36.5 Path Forward
References
Bibliography of Additional eSCC Papers
37 AC Corrosion
Lars Vendelbo Nielsen
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Basic Understanding
37.3 AC Corrosion Risk Assessment and Management
References
Bibliography
38 Erosion-Corrosion in Oil and Gas Pipelines
Siamack A. Shirazi, Brenton S. McLaury, John R. Shadley, Kenneth P. Roberts, Edmund F. Rybicki, Hernan E. Rincon, Shokrollah Hassani, Faisal M. Al-Mutahar, and Gusai H. Al-Aithan
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Solid Particle Erosion
38.3 Erosion-Corrosion of Carbon Steel Piping in a CO2 Environment with Sand
38.4 Erosion-Corrosion Modeling and Characterization of Iron Carbonate Erosivity
38.5 Erosion-Corrosion of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys
38.6 Chemical Inhibition of Erosion-Corrosion
38.7 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
39 Black Powder in Oil and Gas Pipelines
Abdelmounam M. Sherik
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Impacts on Operations and Customers
39.3 Internal Corrosion of Sales Gas Transmission Pipelines
39.4 Analysis Techniques
39.5 Black Powder Movement
39.6 Erosive Properties of Black Powder
39.7 Black Powder Management Methods
39.9 Guidance on Handling and Disposal of Black Powder
39.10 Solutions
39.11 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
PART VI PROTECTION
40 Mitigating Top of the Line Corrosion (TLC) Using Corrosion Inhibitors: Types and Application Methods
Aisha H. Al-Moubaraki and Ime Bassey Obot
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Inhibitors Used to Mitigate TLC
40.3 Application Methods for Corrosion Inhibitors under TLC Conditions
References
41 External Coatings
Doug Waslen
41.1 Introduction and Background
41.2 Coating Performance
41.3 Product Testing
41.4 Standards and Application Specification
41.5 Field-Applied Coatings
41.6 Coating Types and Application
Reference
42 Thermoplastic Liners For Oilfield Pipelines
James F. Mason
42.1 Introduction
42.2 Codes and Standards
42.3 The Installation Process
42.4 Important Mechanical Design Aspects
42.5 Liner Materials
42.6 Operating a Pipeline with a Liner
42.7 Lined Pipeline Systems-Application Examples
References
43 Cathodic Protection
Sarah Leeds
43.1 Introduction
43.2 Historical Foundation of Cathodic Protection
43.3 Fundamentals of Cathodic Protection
43.4 How Cathodic Protection Is Applied
43.5 Design Principles of Cathodic Protection
43.6 Protective Coatings and Cathodic Protection
43.7 Monitoring Cathodic Protection Systems
43.8 Cathodic Protection Criteria
References
PART VII INSPECTION AND MONITORING
44 Using Cathodic Protection for Real-Time Detection of Mechanical Damage and Interference
Gerard Huss, Carine Lacroix, Eric Parizot, and David Xu
44.1 Introduction
44.2 Background
44.3 Testing Procedure and Process
44.4 Real-Time Detection of an Electrical Short between a Pipeline and Its Casing
44.5 Real-Time Detection of Mechanical Aggression on a Pipeline
44.6 Real-Time Detection of a Lightning Strike
44.7 Discussion
References
45 Airborne LiDAR for Pipeline Inspection and Leak Detection
Ashwin Yerasi
45.1 Introduction
45.2 LiDAR Measurements
45.3 Wavelength Bands
45.4 Operational Techniques
45.5 Ancillary Components
45.6 Inspection Report
45.7 LiDAR Developments for Natural Gas Pipeline Leak Surveillance
Appendix 45.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter
References
46 3D-Geolocalization by Magnetometry Using UAS: A Novel Method for Buried Pipeline Mapping and Bending Strain Assessment
Mehdi M. LAICHOUBI, Hamza KELLA BENNANI, Ludovic Berthelot, Vincent BENET, Miaohang HU, Michel PINET, and Samir TAKILLAH
46.1 Introduction
46.2 3D-Localisation and Depth of Cover Assessment
46.3 Materials and Methods
46.4 Case Study and Operating Procedure
46.5 Performance of the 3D-Localisation
46.6 Generalized Study on Eight GRTgaz Pipeline Spots
46.7 Bending Strain Assessment
46.8 Drone-Based Bending Strain (DBBS) Case Study
46.9 Conclusion
References
47 Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors for Pipeline Inspection and Monitoring
Nageswara Lalam and Ruishu Wright
47.1 Introduction
47.2 Distributed Strain and Temperature Sensing (DSTS)
47.3 Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS)
47.4 Distributed Chemical Sensing for Corrosion and Corrosivity Monitoring
47.5 Challenges and Opportunities
47.6 Conclusion
References
48 Direct Assessment
John A. Beavers, Lynsay A. Bensman, and Angel R. Kowalski
48.1 Introduction
48.2 External Corrosion DA (ECDA)
48.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking DA (SCCDA)
48.4 Internal Corrosion DA (ICDA)
References
49 Internal Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes
Daniel E. Powell
49.1 Introduction-Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes
49.2 Corrosion Coupons and Electrical Resistance Corrosion Probes
49.3 Placing Corrosion Monitoring Coupons or Electronic Probes within Pipelines
49.4 Monitoring Results "Drive" Chemical Treatment and Maintenance Pigging Programs
49.5 Relative Sensitivities of NDT versus Internal Corrosion Monitoring Techniques
49.6 Seek Consistency between Internal Corrosion Monitoring and NDT Results - Confirm Trends
49.7 Look for Consistency: Fluid Sample Analysis Should Complement and Verify Monitoring Results
49.8 Summary
49.9 Definitions of Corrosion Monitoring Terms from NACE 3T199 (c) NACE International 2012
References
50 In-Line Inspection (ILI) ("Intelligent Pigging")
Neb I. Uzelac
50.1 Introduction
50.2 Place of ILI in Pipeline Integrity Management
50.3 Running ILI Tools
50.4 Types of ILI Tools and Their Purpose
50.5 Utilizing ILI Data/Verification
50.6 Integrating ILI Data
Appendix 50.A: Sample Pipeline Inspection Questionnaire (Nonmandatory)
References
Bibliography: Journals, Conferences and Other Sources with ILI Related Content
51 Inspection of Offshore Pipelines
Konrad Reber
51.1 The Inspection Challenge in Offshore Pipelines
51.2 Internal Inspection of Offshore Pipelines
51.3 External Inspection Methods for Subsea Pipelines
51.4 Inspection of Risers
51.5 Conclusions
References
52 Tethered Inspection of Riser System for Wall Thickness and Cracks
A. Enters, T.-S. Kristiansen, and U. Schneider
52.1 Introduction
52.2 Tethered Tool Principle
52.3 Case Study: 10-Inch Rigid Offshore Oil Riser Inspection for Wall Thickness and Cracks
52.4 The Reinspection Project
52.5 Summary and Benefits
Reference
53 Eddy Current Testing in Pipeline Inspection
KONRAD REBER
53.1 Standard Eddy Current Testing
53.2 Enhanced Eddy Current Testing
53.3 Applications for Pipeline Inspection
References
54 Unpiggable Pipelines
Tom Steinvoorte
54.1 Introduction
54.2 Challenging Pipeline Inspection Approach
54.3 Free-Swimming ILI Tools for Challenging Pipeline Inspections
54.4 Self-Propelled Inspection Solutions
References
Bibliography: Sources of Additional Information
55 In-The-Ditch Pipeline Inspection
Greg Zinter
55.1 Overview
55.2 Introduction to Nondestructive Examination of Pipelines
55.3 NDE and a Pipeline Integrity Program
55.4 Pipeline Coatings
55.5 Types of Anomalies
55.6 NDE Measurement Technologies
55.7 Excavation Package
55.8 Data Collection
55.9 Conducting In-the-Ditch Assessment
55.10 Data Management
55.11 Recent Technological Developments
55.12 Summary
Acknowledgments
Reference
Bibliography
56 Flaw Assessment
Ted L. Anderson
56.1 Overview
56.1.1 Why Are Flaws Detrimental?
56.2 Assessing Metal Loss
56.3 Crack Assessment
56.4 Dents
References
57 Integrity Management of Pipeline Facilities
Greg Szuch, Mike Reed, and Keith Leewis
57.1 Introduction
57.2 Elements of a F-IMP
57.3 Building a Facility Integrity Plan
57.4 Final Thoughts
References
Bibliography: Essential Reading
58 Pipeline Geohazard Detection Using Satellite InSAR
Murray Down and Jon Leighton
58.1 Introduction: Why InSAR for Pipelines
58.2 Satelllite InSAR Simplified
58.3 Specifying InSAR Requirements
Bibliography
59 Integrity Management of Pipelines with Cracking
Michael Palmer
59.1 Introduction
59.2 What Are Cracks and How Do We Find Them?
59.3 Integrity Assessment of Cracks
59.4 What Can Be Done to Manage the Integrity of a Pipeline with Cracks?
References
PART VIII MAINTENANCE, REPAIR, REPLACEMENT, REUSE, AND ABANDONMENT
60 Hydrogen and the Energy Transition
Neil Gallon and Adrian Horsley
60.1 Introduction
60.2 Hydrogen Storage and Transport
60.3 Designing or Repurposing a Hydrogen Pipeline
60.4 Differences in the Integrity Management Approach between Hydrogen and Natural Gas Pipelines
60.4.1 Probability of Failure
60.4.2 Consequence
60.4.3 Implications for Integrity Management in Hydrogen
References
61 Pipeline Cleaning
Randy L. Roberts
61.1 Introduction
61.2 Contaminates
61.3 Progressive Pigging
61.4 Pig Types
61.5 Durometer
61.6 Mechanical and Liquid (Chemical) Cleaning
61.7 On-Line or Off-Line
61.8 Cleaning a Pipeline
61.9 How Clean Do I Need to Be?
61.10 Summary
References
62 Managing an Aging Pipeline Infrastructure
Brian N. Leis
62.1 Introduction
62.2 Background
62.3 Evolution of Line Pipe Steel, Pipe Making, and Pipeline Construction
62.4 Pipeline System Expansion and the Implications for "Older" Pipelines
62.5 The Evolution of Pipeline Codes and Standards, and Regulations
62.6 Some Unique Aspects of Early and Vintage Pipelines
62.7 Management Approach and Challenges
62.8 Closure
Acknowledgments
References
63 Pipeline Repair Using Full-Encirclement Repair Sleeves
William A. Bruce, Melissa Gould, and John Kiefner
63.1 Introduction
63.2 Background
63.3 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves
63.4 Comparison of Steel Sleeves and Fiber Reinforced Composite Repairs
63.5 Welding onto an In-Service Pipeline
63.6 Summary and Conclusions
References
64 Pipeline Repair
Robert Smyth and David Futch
64.1 Introduction
64.2 Background
64.3 Defect Identification
64.4 Safety
64.5 Protocols
64.6 Recoat
64.7 Pipe Replacement
64.8 Grinding/Sanding
64.9 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves, Type A and B
64.10 Epoxy-Filled Sleeves
64.11 Steel Compression Sleeves
64.12 Composite Reinforcement Sleeves
64.12.1 Designing an Effective Composite Repair
64.13 Thin Sheet Steel Coil Wrap
64.14 Hot Tapping
64.15 Direct Deposition Welding
64.16 Mechanical Clamps
64.17 Temporary Repairs
64.18 Applicability to Various Defect Types
References
65 Pipeline Oil Spill Cleanup
Merv Fingas
65.1 Oil Spills and Pipelines: An Overview
65.2 Response to Oil Spills
65.3 Types of Oil and Their Properties
65.4 Behavior of Oil in the Environment
65.5 Analysis, Detection, and Remote Sensing of Oil Spills
65.6 Containment on Water
65.7 Oil Recovery on Water
65.8 Separation, Pumping, Decontamination, and Disposal
65.9 Spill-Treating Agents
65.10 In Situ Burning
65.11 Shoreline Cleanup and Restoration
65.12 Oil Spills on Land
References
66 Pipeline Abandonment
Alan Pentney and Dean Carnes
66.1 What Is Pipeline Abandonment?
66.2 Abandonment Planning
66.3 Procedures for Abandoning Pipelines and Related Facilities
66.4 Post-Abandonment Physical Issues
66.5 Post-Abandonment Care
References
PART IX RISK MANAGEMENT
67 Risk Management of Pipelines
Lynne C. Kaley
67.1 Overview
67.2 Qualitative and Quantitative RBI Approaches
67.3 Development of Inspection Programs
67.4 Putting RBI into Practice
67.5 Conclusion: Evaluating RBI Methodologies
References
Bibliography
68 Offshore Pipeline Risk, Corrosion, and Integrity Management with Lessons Learned
Binder Singh and Ben Poblete
68.1 Introduction
68.2 Challenges, Lessons, and Solutions
68.3 Life Cycle
68.4 Case Histories
68.5 Codes, Standards, Recommended Practices, and Regulations
68.6 Corrosion Risk Analysis, Inspection, and Monitoring Methodologies
68.7 Lessons Learned, Recommendations, and Future Strategies
Caveat and Acknowledgments
References
Bibliography
69 Pipeline Operational Intrusions
Errol R. A. Eccles
69.1 Introduction
69.2 Operations Management and Risk
69.3 Risk Assessment
69.4 Operations Management
69.5 Process Safety Management
69.6 Work Management
69.7 Emergency and Incident Management
69.8 Management of Change (MOC)
69.9 Competence
69.10 Risk Management
69.11 Information Technology (IT)
69.12 Summary
69.13 Terms and Definitions
Acknowledgments
References
PART X CASE HISTORIES
70 Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking on Onshore Pipelines Driven by Cathodic Protection - Case Studies
Pablo Cazenave, Katina Jimenez, Ming Gao, and Ravi Krishnamurthy
70.1 Background
70.2 Investigation of a Gas Transmission Pipeline Failure in Argentina
70.3 Mechanisms of Cracking
70.4 Similar Cases in Europe, North America, and the Literature
70.5 Effects of CP-related Hydrogen on Other Types of Cracking
70.6 Mitigation strategies
70.7 Closing remarks
References
71 Buckling of Pipelines under Repair Sleeves: A Case Study-Analysis of the Problem and Cost-Effective Solutions
Arnold L. Lewis II
71.1 Introduction
71.2 Study Conclusions
71.3 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
72 Shell FLAGS Inspection Case Study
J. Nonemaker, T. Steinvoorte, and R. Subramanian
72.1 Introduction
72.2 The Challenge
72.3 The Solution
72.4 Field Work
72.5 Result
73 Deepwater, High-Pressure and Multi-Diameter Pipelines - A Challenging In-Line Inspection Project
Luciano Baptista, Tom Steinvoorte, Stephan Harmsen, and Carlos Enrique Sabido
73.1 Introduction
73.2 Background
73.3 Challenge
73.4 Solution
73.5 Scope
73.6 Tool Design
73.7 Testing
73.8 Gauging and Inspection Runs
73.9 Benefit
References
GLOSSARY
Part 1: Abbreviations
Part 2: Selected Terms
CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE
PART I DIGITALIZATION OF PIPELINES
1 Digital Future of Pipeline Integrity
Gaurav Singh
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Digital Integrity Framework
1.3 Fast Forward Digital Future Technologies
1.4 Technology Transition with Energy Transition
References
2 Cybersecurity and Safety Implications of Pipelines
Ben Miller and Jason Christopher
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Defining Industrial Cybersecurity
2.3 The Industrial Cybersecurity Challenge
2.4 Industrial Intrusion Case Studies - A Short History
2.5 Industrial Cybersecurity Considerations for Pipeline Operations
2.6 The Five ICS Cybersecurity Critical Controls
2.7 Getting Started: Common High-Impact Scenarios for Pipeline Operations
2.8 Conclusion
References
3 Practical Applications of Machine Learning to Pipeline Integrity
Michael Gloven
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Machine Learning Fundamentals
3.3 Supervised Learning - Classification
3.4 Supervised Learning - Regression
3.5 Unsupervised Learning
3.6 Final Thoughts
3.7 Summary
References
Bibliography
4 Pipeline Corrosion Management, Artificial Intelligence, and Machine Learning
Khairul Chowdhury, Binder Singh, and Shahidullah Kawsar
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Background
4.3 Analysis Tool: Automated Predictive Analytics Computation Systems
4.4 Problem Example: Predicting Failure by External and Internal Corrosion
4.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
PART II DESIGN
5 CO2 Pipeline Transportation: Managing the Safe Repurposing of Vintage Pipelines in a Low-Carbon Economy
Daniel Sandana
5.1 Introduction
5.2 CCUS: An Enabler of Decarbonization
5.3 Transportation of CO2 by Pipeline: Operations
5.4 CO2 Pipeline Transportation: Key Integrity Challenges
5.5 Managing the Safe Repurposing of Vintage Pipelines
References
6 Pipeline Integrity Management Systems (PIMS)
Katherine Jonsson, Ray Goodfellow, Douglas Evans, and Chitman Lutchman
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lessons Learned and the Evolution of Pipeline Integrity
6.3 Regulatory Requirements
6.4 What is a PIMS?
6.5 Core Structure and PIMS Elements
6.6 PIMS Function Map
6.7 Plan: Strategic and Operational
6.8 Do: Execute
6.9 Check: Assurance and Verification
6.10 Act: Management Review
6.11 Culture
6.12 Summary
References
7 SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
Rumi Mohammad, Ian Verhappen, and Ramin Vali
7.1 Introduction
7.2 SCADA Computer Servers
7.3 SCADA Computer Workstations
7.4 Hierarchy
7.5 Runtime and Configuration Databases
7.6 Fault Tolerance
7.7 Redundancy
7.8 High Availability
7.9 Human Factors Design in SCADA Systems
7.10 Alarm Rationalization, Management, and Analysis
7.11 Incident Review and Replay
7.12 Data Quality
7.13 Operator Logbook and Shift Handover
7.14 Training
7.15 SCADA Security
7.16 Cybersecurity
7.17 SCADA Standards
7.18 Pipeline Industry Applications
7.19 Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence
7.20 Communication Media
7.21 Communications Infrastructure
7.22 Communications Integrity
7.23 RTUs and PLCs
7.24 Database
7.25 User-Defined Programs
7.26 RTU/PLC Integrity
7.27 Safety Systems
7.28 IOT/IIOT
7.29 Electrical Classification Compliance
Acronyms, Abbreviations, Terms
Bibliography
8 Material Selection for Fracture Control
William Tyson
8.1 Overview of Fracture Control
8.2 Toughness Requirements: Initiation
8.3 Toughness Requirements: Propagation
8.4 Toughness Measurement
8.5 Current Status
References
9 Strain-Based Design of Pipelines
Nader Yoosef-Ghodsi
9.1 Introduction and Basic Concepts
9.2 Strain Demand
9.3 Strain Capacity
9.4 Role of Full-Scale and Curved Wide Plate Testing
9.5 Summary
References
10 Stress-Based Design of Pipelines
Mavis Sika Okyere
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Design Pressure
10.3 Design Factor
10.4 Determination of Components of Stress
10.5 Fatigue
10.6 Expansion and Flexibility
10.7 Corrosion Allowance
10.8 Pipeline Stiffness
10.9 Pipeline Ovality
10.10 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius
10.11 Pipeline Design for External Pressure
10.12 Check for Hydrotest Conditions
10.13 Summary
Appendix 10.A: Case Study
References
11 Spiral Welded Pipes for Shallow Offshore Applications
Ayman Eltaher
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Limitations of the Technology Feasibility
11.3 Challenges of Offshore Applications
11.4 Typical Pipe Properties
11.5 Technology Qualification
11.6 Additional Resources
11.7 Summary
References
12 Residual Stress in Pipelines
Douglas Hornbach and Paul Prevey
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Influence of Residual Stresses on Performance
12.3 Residual Stress Measurement
12.4 Control and Alteration of Residual Stresses
12.5 Case Studies of the Effect of Residual Stress and Cold Work
References
13 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Modeling in Support of Pipeline Engineering Design and Integrity
Shawn Kenny and Paul Jukes
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Site Characterization and Geotechnical Engineering in Relation to Pipeline System Response Analysis
13.3 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Analysis and Design
Acknowledgments
References
14 Human Factors
Lorna Harron
14.1 Introduction
14.2 What Is "Human Factors"?
14.3 The Human in the System
14.4 Life Cycle Approach to Human Factors
14.5 Human Factors and Decision Making
14.6 Application of Human Factors Guidance
14.7 Heuristics and Biases in Decision Making
14.8 Human Factors Contribution to Incidents in the Pipeline Industry
14.9 Human Factors Life Cycle Revisited
14.10 Tools and Methods
14.11 Summary
References
Bibliography
PART III NONMETALLIC PIPELINES
15 Nonmetallic Composite Pipelines
Niels Grigat, Stephan Koss, Ben Vollbrecht, Tim Moelling, Johannes Henrich Schleifenbaum, and Thomas Gries
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Materials
15.3 Manufacturing
15.4 Applications
15.5 Conclusion
References
PART IV MANUFACTURE, FABRICATION, AND CONSTRUCTION
16 Microstructure and Texture Development in Pipeline Steels
Roumen H. Petrov, John J. Jonas, Leo A.I. Kestens, and J. Malcolm Gray
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Short History of Pipeline Steel Development
16.3 Texture Control in Pipeline Steels
16.4 Effect of Texture on In-Plane Anisotropy
16.5 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
17 Pipe Manufacture-Longitudinal Submerged Arc Welded Large Diameter Pipe
Christoph Kalwa
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Manufacturing Process
17.3 Quality Control Procedures
17.4 Range of Grades and Dimensions
17.5 Typical Fields of Application
18 Pipe Manufacture - Spiral Pipe
Franz Martin Knoop
18.1 Manufacturing Process
18.2 Quality Control Procedures
18.3 Range of Grades and Dimensions
18.4 Typical Fields of Applicability
References
19 Pipe Manufacture-Seamless Tube and Pipe
Rolf Kuemmerling and Klaus Kraemer
19.1 The Rolling Process
19.2 Further Processing
References
20 Design of Steels for Large Diameter Sour Service Pipelines
Nobuyuki Ishikawa
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking of Linepipe Steel and Evaluation Method
20.3 Material Design of Linepipe Steel with HIC Resistance
20.4 Material Design of Linepipe Steel with SSC Resistance under Severe Sour Conditions
References
21 Pipeline Welding from the Perspective of Safety and Integrity
David Dorling and James Gianetto
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Construction Welding Applications
21.2.1 Double-Joint Welding
21.2.2 Mainline Welding
21.2.3 Tie-In and Repair Welding
21.3 Non-destructive Inspection and Flaw Assessment
21.4 Welding Procedure and Welder Qualification
21.5 Hydrogen Control in Welds and the Prevention of Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking
21.6 Important Considerations for Qualifying Welding Procedures to a Strain-Based Design
21.7 Welding on In-Service Pipelines
21.8 Pipeline Incidents and Recent Industry and Regulatory Preventative Action
Appendix 21.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter
Appendix 21.B: Regulations, Codes, and Standards
Acknowledgements
References
22 The Effect of Installation on Offshore Pipeline Integrity
Robert O'Grady
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Installation Methods and Pipeline Behaviour During Installation
22.3 Critical Factors Governing Installation
22.4 Installation Analysis and Design Methodologies
22.5 Monitoring the Installation Process Offshore
22.6 Implications of Deeper Water on Installation
Reference
Bibliography
PART V THREATS TO INTEGRITY AND SAFETY
23 Top of the Line Corrosion (TLC): Causes and Mechanisms
Aisha H. Al-Moubaraki and Ime Bassey Obot
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Fundamentals of TLC
References
24 Management of Geohazard Loading during Pipeline Operation
Andy Young
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Nature of Hazards
24.3 Regulations on Geohazard Management
24.4 Geohazards Management Plan
24.5 Hazard Identification
24.6 Hazard Evaluation
24.7 Hazard Mitigation
References
25 Climate Change, Pipeline Corrosion, and Integrity Management
Binder Singh
25.1 Introduction
25.2 ALARP Factor
25.3 Natural or Man-Made?
25.4 Engineering Steel and Infrastructure
25.5 Reasons for Optimism
25.6 Discussion and Closing Remarks
Caveat and Acknowledgements
Appendix 25.A Acronyms, Definitions, and Criteria
Appendix 25.B Main Corrosion Terms: Modes and Mechanisms
References
Bibliography
26 External Corrosion of Pipelines in Soil
Homero Castaneda, Hui Wang, and Omar Rosas
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Background
26.3 Critical Factors of Soil Corrosivity that Affect Pipelines
26.4 Identifying Corrosive Environments
26.5 Cathodic Protection and Stray Currents
26.6 Monitoring and Inspection for Corrosion Characterization under Multiscale Conditions
References
27 Knowledge- and Data-Driven External Corrosion Modeling in Pipelines
Hui Wang, Homero Castaneda, and Sreelakshmi Sreeharan
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Background
27.3 Model Framework and Theory
27.4 Model Application
27.5 Limitations of the Approach
27.6 Conclusion
References
28 Electrochemical Noise to Monitor Corrosion of a Coated Metal
Sarah Leeds
28.1 Introduction
28.1.1 Protective Coatings
28.1.2 History of Electrochemical Noise
28.1.3 What is Electrochemical Noise?
28.2 Electrochemical Noise Method
28.3 Applications of ECN
28.3.1 Examples of the Application of Electrochemical Noise
Acknowledgments
References
29 Telluric Influence on Pipelines
David H. Boteler and Larisa Trichtchenko
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Review of the Existing Knowledge on Pipeline-Telluric Interference
29.3 Geomagnetic Sources of Telluric Activity
29.4 Earth Resistivity Influence on Telluric Activity
29.5 Pipeline Response to Telluric Electric Fields
29.6 Telluric Hazard Assessment
29.7 Mitigation/Compensation of Telluric Effects
29.8 Knowledge Gaps/Open Questions
29.9 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
30 Factors Controlling Stress Corrosion Cracking and Typical Growth Rates
B N Leis
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Research Concerning the Factors Controlling SCC
30.3 Factors Controlling SCC - Service vs Laboratory Cracking
30.4 Quantifying a Bathtub Speed-Life Curve for High-pH SCC
30.5 Emergence of NN-pH SCC: Its Traits vs High-pH SCC
30.6 Industry Guidance on Crack Speed and the Incidence of SCC
30.6.2 Where and When SCC Might Be Anticipated
30.7 Interface between Integrity and Condition Assessment
30.8 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
31 Processes for High-pH and Near-Neutral-pH Stress Corrosion Cracking
B N Leis
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Imaging SCC and Related Observations
31.3 Compendium of SCC Images: Observations and Discussion
31.4 Crack Initiation and Growth Behavior on Pipelines
31.5 Summary and Key Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
32 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
Jason S. Lee and Brenda J. Little
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Materials
32.3 Microorganisms
32.4 Internal Corrosion of Pipelines
32.5 External Corrosion of Pipelines
32.6 Conclusions
References
33 Progression of Pitting Corrosion and Structural Reliability of Welded Steel Pipelines
Robert E. Melchers
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Asset Management and Prediction
33.3 Pitting
33.4 Model for Long-Term Growth in Pit Depth
33.5 Factors Influencing Maximum Pit Depth Development
33.6 Structural Reliability
33.7 Extreme Value Analysis for Maximum Pit Depth
33.8 Pitting at Welds
33.9 Case Study-Water Injection Pipelines
33.10 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
34 Mechanical Damage in Pipelines: A Review of the Methods and Improvements in Characterization, Evaluation, and Mitigation
Ming Gao and Ravi Krishnamurthy
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Dent Formation Process and Types of Dents
34.3 In-Line-Inspection (ILI) Technologies for Mechanical Damage Characterization
34.4 Technologies for In-Ditch Mechanical Damage Characterization
34.5 Assessment of Severity of Mechanical Damage
34.6 Mitigation and Repairs
34.7 Continued Challenges
References
35 Sulfide Stress Cracking
Russell D. Kane
35.1 Introduction
35.2 What Is Sulfide Stress Cracking?
35.3 Basics of Sulfide Stress Cracking in Pipelines
35.4 Comparison of SSC to Other Sour Cracking Mechanisms
35.5 Influence of Environmental Variables on SSC
35.6 Influence of Metallurgical Variables on SSC in Steels
35.7 Use of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys to Resist SSC
References
36 Stress Corrosion Cracking of Steel Equipment in Ethanol Service
Russell D. Kane
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Factors Affecting Susceptibility to Ethanol SCC
36.3 Occurrences and Consequences of eSCC
36.4 Guidelines for Identification, Mitigation, and Repair of eSCC
36.5 Path Forward
References
Bibliography of Additional eSCC Papers
37 AC Corrosion
Lars Vendelbo Nielsen
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Basic Understanding
37.3 AC Corrosion Risk Assessment and Management
References
Bibliography
38 Erosion-Corrosion in Oil and Gas Pipelines
Siamack A. Shirazi, Brenton S. McLaury, John R. Shadley, Kenneth P. Roberts, Edmund F. Rybicki, Hernan E. Rincon, Shokrollah Hassani, Faisal M. Al-Mutahar, and Gusai H. Al-Aithan
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Solid Particle Erosion
38.3 Erosion-Corrosion of Carbon Steel Piping in a CO2 Environment with Sand
38.4 Erosion-Corrosion Modeling and Characterization of Iron Carbonate Erosivity
38.5 Erosion-Corrosion of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys
38.6 Chemical Inhibition of Erosion-Corrosion
38.7 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
39 Black Powder in Oil and Gas Pipelines
Abdelmounam M. Sherik
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Impacts on Operations and Customers
39.3 Internal Corrosion of Sales Gas Transmission Pipelines
39.4 Analysis Techniques
39.5 Black Powder Movement
39.6 Erosive Properties of Black Powder
39.7 Black Powder Management Methods
39.9 Guidance on Handling and Disposal of Black Powder
39.10 Solutions
39.11 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
PART VI PROTECTION
40 Mitigating Top of the Line Corrosion (TLC) Using Corrosion Inhibitors: Types and Application Methods
Aisha H. Al-Moubaraki and Ime Bassey Obot
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Inhibitors Used to Mitigate TLC
40.3 Application Methods for Corrosion Inhibitors under TLC Conditions
References
41 External Coatings
Doug Waslen
41.1 Introduction and Background
41.2 Coating Performance
41.3 Product Testing
41.4 Standards and Application Specification
41.5 Field-Applied Coatings
41.6 Coating Types and Application
Reference
42 Thermoplastic Liners For Oilfield Pipelines
James F. Mason
42.1 Introduction
42.2 Codes and Standards
42.3 The Installation Process
42.4 Important Mechanical Design Aspects
42.5 Liner Materials
42.6 Operating a Pipeline with a Liner
42.7 Lined Pipeline Systems-Application Examples
References
43 Cathodic Protection
Sarah Leeds
43.1 Introduction
43.2 Historical Foundation of Cathodic Protection
43.3 Fundamentals of Cathodic Protection
43.4 How Cathodic Protection Is Applied
43.5 Design Principles of Cathodic Protection
43.6 Protective Coatings and Cathodic Protection
43.7 Monitoring Cathodic Protection Systems
43.8 Cathodic Protection Criteria
References
PART VII INSPECTION AND MONITORING
44 Using Cathodic Protection for Real-Time Detection of Mechanical Damage and Interference
Gerard Huss, Carine Lacroix, Eric Parizot, and David Xu
44.1 Introduction
44.2 Background
44.3 Testing Procedure and Process
44.4 Real-Time Detection of an Electrical Short between a Pipeline and Its Casing
44.5 Real-Time Detection of Mechanical Aggression on a Pipeline
44.6 Real-Time Detection of a Lightning Strike
44.7 Discussion
References
45 Airborne LiDAR for Pipeline Inspection and Leak Detection
Ashwin Yerasi
45.1 Introduction
45.2 LiDAR Measurements
45.3 Wavelength Bands
45.4 Operational Techniques
45.5 Ancillary Components
45.6 Inspection Report
45.7 LiDAR Developments for Natural Gas Pipeline Leak Surveillance
Appendix 45.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter
References
46 3D-Geolocalization by Magnetometry Using UAS: A Novel Method for Buried Pipeline Mapping and Bending Strain Assessment
Mehdi M. LAICHOUBI, Hamza KELLA BENNANI, Ludovic Berthelot, Vincent BENET, Miaohang HU, Michel PINET, and Samir TAKILLAH
46.1 Introduction
46.2 3D-Localisation and Depth of Cover Assessment
46.3 Materials and Methods
46.4 Case Study and Operating Procedure
46.5 Performance of the 3D-Localisation
46.6 Generalized Study on Eight GRTgaz Pipeline Spots
46.7 Bending Strain Assessment
46.8 Drone-Based Bending Strain (DBBS) Case Study
46.9 Conclusion
References
47 Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors for Pipeline Inspection and Monitoring
Nageswara Lalam and Ruishu Wright
47.1 Introduction
47.2 Distributed Strain and Temperature Sensing (DSTS)
47.3 Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS)
47.4 Distributed Chemical Sensing for Corrosion and Corrosivity Monitoring
47.5 Challenges and Opportunities
47.6 Conclusion
References
48 Direct Assessment
John A. Beavers, Lynsay A. Bensman, and Angel R. Kowalski
48.1 Introduction
48.2 External Corrosion DA (ECDA)
48.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking DA (SCCDA)
48.4 Internal Corrosion DA (ICDA)
References
49 Internal Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes
Daniel E. Powell
49.1 Introduction-Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes
49.2 Corrosion Coupons and Electrical Resistance Corrosion Probes
49.3 Placing Corrosion Monitoring Coupons or Electronic Probes within Pipelines
49.4 Monitoring Results "Drive" Chemical Treatment and Maintenance Pigging Programs
49.5 Relative Sensitivities of NDT versus Internal Corrosion Monitoring Techniques
49.6 Seek Consistency between Internal Corrosion Monitoring and NDT Results - Confirm Trends
49.7 Look for Consistency: Fluid Sample Analysis Should Complement and Verify Monitoring Results
49.8 Summary
49.9 Definitions of Corrosion Monitoring Terms from NACE 3T199 (c) NACE International 2012
References
50 In-Line Inspection (ILI) ("Intelligent Pigging")
Neb I. Uzelac
50.1 Introduction
50.2 Place of ILI in Pipeline Integrity Management
50.3 Running ILI Tools
50.4 Types of ILI Tools and Their Purpose
50.5 Utilizing ILI Data/Verification
50.6 Integrating ILI Data
Appendix 50.A: Sample Pipeline Inspection Questionnaire (Nonmandatory)
References
Bibliography: Journals, Conferences and Other Sources with ILI Related Content
51 Inspection of Offshore Pipelines
Konrad Reber
51.1 The Inspection Challenge in Offshore Pipelines
51.2 Internal Inspection of Offshore Pipelines
51.3 External Inspection Methods for Subsea Pipelines
51.4 Inspection of Risers
51.5 Conclusions
References
52 Tethered Inspection of Riser System for Wall Thickness and Cracks
A. Enters, T.-S. Kristiansen, and U. Schneider
52.1 Introduction
52.2 Tethered Tool Principle
52.3 Case Study: 10-Inch Rigid Offshore Oil Riser Inspection for Wall Thickness and Cracks
52.4 The Reinspection Project
52.5 Summary and Benefits
Reference
53 Eddy Current Testing in Pipeline Inspection
KONRAD REBER
53.1 Standard Eddy Current Testing
53.2 Enhanced Eddy Current Testing
53.3 Applications for Pipeline Inspection
References
54 Unpiggable Pipelines
Tom Steinvoorte
54.1 Introduction
54.2 Challenging Pipeline Inspection Approach
54.3 Free-Swimming ILI Tools for Challenging Pipeline Inspections
54.4 Self-Propelled Inspection Solutions
References
Bibliography: Sources of Additional Information
55 In-The-Ditch Pipeline Inspection
Greg Zinter
55.1 Overview
55.2 Introduction to Nondestructive Examination of Pipelines
55.3 NDE and a Pipeline Integrity Program
55.4 Pipeline Coatings
55.5 Types of Anomalies
55.6 NDE Measurement Technologies
55.7 Excavation Package
55.8 Data Collection
55.9 Conducting In-the-Ditch Assessment
55.10 Data Management
55.11 Recent Technological Developments
55.12 Summary
Acknowledgments
Reference
Bibliography
56 Flaw Assessment
Ted L. Anderson
56.1 Overview
56.1.1 Why Are Flaws Detrimental?
56.2 Assessing Metal Loss
56.3 Crack Assessment
56.4 Dents
References
57 Integrity Management of Pipeline Facilities
Greg Szuch, Mike Reed, and Keith Leewis
57.1 Introduction
57.2 Elements of a F-IMP
57.3 Building a Facility Integrity Plan
57.4 Final Thoughts
References
Bibliography: Essential Reading
58 Pipeline Geohazard Detection Using Satellite InSAR
Murray Down and Jon Leighton
58.1 Introduction: Why InSAR for Pipelines
58.2 Satelllite InSAR Simplified
58.3 Specifying InSAR Requirements
Bibliography
59 Integrity Management of Pipelines with Cracking
Michael Palmer
59.1 Introduction
59.2 What Are Cracks and How Do We Find Them?
59.3 Integrity Assessment of Cracks
59.4 What Can Be Done to Manage the Integrity of a Pipeline with Cracks?
References
PART VIII MAINTENANCE, REPAIR, REPLACEMENT, REUSE, AND ABANDONMENT
60 Hydrogen and the Energy Transition
Neil Gallon and Adrian Horsley
60.1 Introduction
60.2 Hydrogen Storage and Transport
60.3 Designing or Repurposing a Hydrogen Pipeline
60.4 Differences in the Integrity Management Approach between Hydrogen and Natural Gas Pipelines
60.4.1 Probability of Failure
60.4.2 Consequence
60.4.3 Implications for Integrity Management in Hydrogen
References
61 Pipeline Cleaning
Randy L. Roberts
61.1 Introduction
61.2 Contaminates
61.3 Progressive Pigging
61.4 Pig Types
61.5 Durometer
61.6 Mechanical and Liquid (Chemical) Cleaning
61.7 On-Line or Off-Line
61.8 Cleaning a Pipeline
61.9 How Clean Do I Need to Be?
61.10 Summary
References
62 Managing an Aging Pipeline Infrastructure
Brian N. Leis
62.1 Introduction
62.2 Background
62.3 Evolution of Line Pipe Steel, Pipe Making, and Pipeline Construction
62.4 Pipeline System Expansion and the Implications for "Older" Pipelines
62.5 The Evolution of Pipeline Codes and Standards, and Regulations
62.6 Some Unique Aspects of Early and Vintage Pipelines
62.7 Management Approach and Challenges
62.8 Closure
Acknowledgments
References
63 Pipeline Repair Using Full-Encirclement Repair Sleeves
William A. Bruce, Melissa Gould, and John Kiefner
63.1 Introduction
63.2 Background
63.3 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves
63.4 Comparison of Steel Sleeves and Fiber Reinforced Composite Repairs
63.5 Welding onto an In-Service Pipeline
63.6 Summary and Conclusions
References
64 Pipeline Repair
Robert Smyth and David Futch
64.1 Introduction
64.2 Background
64.3 Defect Identification
64.4 Safety
64.5 Protocols
64.6 Recoat
64.7 Pipe Replacement
64.8 Grinding/Sanding
64.9 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves, Type A and B
64.10 Epoxy-Filled Sleeves
64.11 Steel Compression Sleeves
64.12 Composite Reinforcement Sleeves
64.12.1 Designing an Effective Composite Repair
64.13 Thin Sheet Steel Coil Wrap
64.14 Hot Tapping
64.15 Direct Deposition Welding
64.16 Mechanical Clamps
64.17 Temporary Repairs
64.18 Applicability to Various Defect Types
References
65 Pipeline Oil Spill Cleanup
Merv Fingas
65.1 Oil Spills and Pipelines: An Overview
65.2 Response to Oil Spills
65.3 Types of Oil and Their Properties
65.4 Behavior of Oil in the Environment
65.5 Analysis, Detection, and Remote Sensing of Oil Spills
65.6 Containment on Water
65.7 Oil Recovery on Water
65.8 Separation, Pumping, Decontamination, and Disposal
65.9 Spill-Treating Agents
65.10 In Situ Burning
65.11 Shoreline Cleanup and Restoration
65.12 Oil Spills on Land
References
66 Pipeline Abandonment
Alan Pentney and Dean Carnes
66.1 What Is Pipeline Abandonment?
66.2 Abandonment Planning
66.3 Procedures for Abandoning Pipelines and Related Facilities
66.4 Post-Abandonment Physical Issues
66.5 Post-Abandonment Care
References
PART IX RISK MANAGEMENT
67 Risk Management of Pipelines
Lynne C. Kaley
67.1 Overview
67.2 Qualitative and Quantitative RBI Approaches
67.3 Development of Inspection Programs
67.4 Putting RBI into Practice
67.5 Conclusion: Evaluating RBI Methodologies
References
Bibliography
68 Offshore Pipeline Risk, Corrosion, and Integrity Management with Lessons Learned
Binder Singh and Ben Poblete
68.1 Introduction
68.2 Challenges, Lessons, and Solutions
68.3 Life Cycle
68.4 Case Histories
68.5 Codes, Standards, Recommended Practices, and Regulations
68.6 Corrosion Risk Analysis, Inspection, and Monitoring Methodologies
68.7 Lessons Learned, Recommendations, and Future Strategies
Caveat and Acknowledgments
References
Bibliography
69 Pipeline Operational Intrusions
Errol R. A. Eccles
69.1 Introduction
69.2 Operations Management and Risk
69.3 Risk Assessment
69.4 Operations Management
69.5 Process Safety Management
69.6 Work Management
69.7 Emergency and Incident Management
69.8 Management of Change (MOC)
69.9 Competence
69.10 Risk Management
69.11 Information Technology (IT)
69.12 Summary
69.13 Terms and Definitions
Acknowledgments
References
PART X CASE HISTORIES
70 Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking on Onshore Pipelines Driven by Cathodic Protection - Case Studies
Pablo Cazenave, Katina Jimenez, Ming Gao, and Ravi Krishnamurthy
70.1 Background
70.2 Investigation of a Gas Transmission Pipeline Failure in Argentina
70.3 Mechanisms of Cracking
70.4 Similar Cases in Europe, North America, and the Literature
70.5 Effects of CP-related Hydrogen on Other Types of Cracking
70.6 Mitigation strategies
70.7 Closing remarks
References
71 Buckling of Pipelines under Repair Sleeves: A Case Study-Analysis of the Problem and Cost-Effective Solutions
Arnold L. Lewis II
71.1 Introduction
71.2 Study Conclusions
71.3 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
72 Shell FLAGS Inspection Case Study
J. Nonemaker, T. Steinvoorte, and R. Subramanian
72.1 Introduction
72.2 The Challenge
72.3 The Solution
72.4 Field Work
72.5 Result
73 Deepwater, High-Pressure and Multi-Diameter Pipelines - A Challenging In-Line Inspection Project
Luciano Baptista, Tom Steinvoorte, Stephan Harmsen, and Carlos Enrique Sabido
73.1 Introduction
73.2 Background
73.3 Challenge
73.4 Solution
73.5 Scope
73.6 Tool Design
73.7 Testing
73.8 Gauging and Inspection Runs
73.9 Benefit
References
GLOSSARY
Part 1: Abbreviations
Part 2: Selected Terms
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