Textile Finishing
-15%
portes grátis
Textile Finishing
Recent Developments and Future Trends
Mittal, K. L.; Bahners, Thomas
John Wiley & Sons Inc
08/2017
588
Dura
Inglês
9781119426769
15 a 20 dias
Descrição não disponível.
Preface xv Part 1 Recent Developments and Current Challenges in Textile Finishing 1 Recent Concepts of Antimicrobial Textile Finishes 3 Barbara Simon?i? and Brigita Tomsi? 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Antimicrobial Agents 5 1.2.1 Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Activity 6 1.2.2 Structures of Antimicrobial Agents 7 1.2.2.1 Leaching Antimicrobial Agents 7 1.2.2.2 Bound Antimicrobial Agents 17 1.3 Low Adhesion Agents 21 1.4 Dual-Action Antimicrobial Agents 24 1.5 Evaluation of Antimicrobial Activity of Functionalized Textiles 29 1.5.1 Standardized Methods for the Determination of Antibacterial Activity 31 1.5.2 Standardized Methods for the Determination of Antifungal Activity 35 1.6 Health and Environmental Issues 39 1.6.1 Health and Environmental Impacts of Antimicrobial Compounds 41 1.7 Future Trends 46 1.8 Summary 46 Acknowledgement 48 References 48 2 Flame Retardant Textile Finishes 69 A Richard Horrocks 2.1 Introduction 70 2.2 Current Commercial, Durable Flame Retardants: Advantages and Disadvantages 71 2.3 Current Challenges 78 2.3.1 Minimisation of Effluents 78 2.3.2 Replacing Formaldehyde Chemistry, Particularly with Respect to Cotton and Blended Fabrics 82 2.3.2.1 Oligomeric Phosphate-Phosphonate 83 2.3.2.2 Multifunctional Carboxylic Acids 83 2.3.2.3 Alkyl Phosphoramidate Adduct 86 2.3.2.4 Phosphonyl Cyanurates 87 2.3.2.5 Cellulose-Phosphoramidate Ester Interchange 88 2.3.2.6 Cellulose-Chloro Triazinyl Derivative Condensation 89 2.3.2.7 Phosphorus Acid Derivatives of Cellulose 90 2.3.2.8 Phosphorus-Nitrogen-Silicon Developments 91 2.3.2.9 Polymer Networks 92 2.3.2.10 Other Finishing Treatments 93 2.3.3 Replacing Bromine, Notably in Coating and Back-Coating Formulations 94 2.3.3.1 Reducing the BrFR Concentrations 95 2.3.3.2 Possible Bromine-Chlorine and Phosphorus-Bromine Synergies 96 2.3.3.3 Effectiveness of Phosphorus 97 2.3.3.4 The Sensitisation of Decomposition or Flame Retarding Efficiency of Phosphorus-Based Systems 99 2.3.3.5 The Introduction of a Volatile and Possible Vapour-Phase Active, Phosphorus-Based Flame Retardant Component 99 2.4 Novel Surface Chemistries 101 2.4.1 Sol-Gel Surface Treatments 103 2.4.2 Layer-by-Layer Treatments 107 2.4.3 Polymer Coating and UV and Plasma Grafting Treatments 111 2.4.3.1 Plasma Treatments 112 2.4.3.2 UV and Other Grafting Treatments 116 2.5 Summary 117 References 117 Bibliography 127 3 Striving for Self-Cleaning Textiles - Critical Thoughts on Current Literature 129 Thomas Bahners and Kash Mittal 3.1 Introduction 130 3.2 Fundamental Principles 133 3.2.1 Self-Cleaning - The Super-Hydrophobic Approach 133 3.2.2 Self-Cleaning - The Super-Hydrophilic Approach 136 3.2.3 Expected Merits of the Concepts 138 3.3 Attempts to Attain Super-Hydrophobic Behavior 140 3.3.1 Minimized Surface Free Energy 140 3.3.1.1 Novel Chemical Finishes of Non-Polar Character 141 3.3.1.2 Deposition of Non-Polar Thin Layers by Plasma and Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD) 142 3.3.1.3 Deposition of Non-Polar Thin Layers by Photo-Chemical Surface Modification 145 3.3.2 Enhancing Liquid Repellence by Adding Surface Roughness 147 3.3.2.1 Application of Micro- and Nano-Rough (Hybrid) Coatings 147 3.3.2.2 Incorporation of Micro- and Nanoparticles 149 3.3.2.3 Laser-Based Surface Roughening 151 3.4 Attempts to Attain Super-Hydrophilic Properties 153 3.4.1 Use of Photo-Catalytic TiO2 153 3.4.2 Making Use of Micro-Roughness According to the Wenzel Model 155 3.5 Relevance for Dirt Take-Up, Cleanability, and Self-Cleaning 156 3.6 Summary 160 References 162 4 Metallization of Polymers and Textiles 171 Piotr Rytlewski, Krzysztof Moraczewski and Bart?omiej Jagodzi?ski 4.1 Introduction 171 4.2 Main Methods of Metallization 173 4.2.1 Methods Based on Physical Vapor Deposition 173 4.2.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition Methods 178 4.3 Electroless Metallization 184 4.4 Summary 198 References 199 5 Wettability Characterization in Textiles - Use and Abuse of Measuring Procedures 207 Thomas Bahners, Helga Thomas and Jochen S. Gutmann 5.1 Introduction 208 5.2 Peculiarities of Textile Substrates 209 5.3 Wettability Measurements on Fabrics 213 5.3.1 Contact Angle Measurements 213 5.3.2 Drop Penetration Tests 217 5.3.3 Soaking or Rising Height Test 222 5.3.4 The Wilhelmy Method 224 5.4 Contact Angle Measurements on Fibers 226 5.4.1 Adapting the Wilhelmy Plate Method to Single Fibers 226 5.4.2 The Washburn Approach - Wilhelmy Wicking Method 226 5.5 Summary and Concluding Remarks 228 Acknowledgements 231 References 231 Part 2 Surface Modification Techniques for Textiles 6 Surface Functionalization of Synthetic Textiles by Atmospheric Pressure Plasma 237 Keiko Gotoh 6.1 Introduction 237 6.2 Processing Parameters of Atmospheric Pressure Plasma (APP) Jet 239 6.3 Change in Single Fiber Wettability Due to APP Jet Treatment 241 6.4 Hydrophobic Recovery after APP Jet Treatment 244 6.5 Chemical and Topographical Changes on Fiber Surface Due to APP Jet Treatment 245 6.6 Fabric Damage Due to APP Jet Treatment 247 6.7 Improvement of Textile Serviceability Properties by APP Jet Treatment 250 6.7.1 Water Wicking Property 250 6.7.2 Detergency 251 6.7.3 Dyeability 252 6.8 Summary and Prospects 254 Acknowledgements 254 References 255 7 UV-Based Photo-Chemical Surface Modification of Textile Fabrics 261 Thomas Bahners and Jochen S. Gutmann 7.1 Introduction 261 7.2 Fundamentals of the Process 263 7.2.1 Photo-Addition, Irradiation in Air 263 7.2.2 Layer Formation by Homo-Polymerization and Graft-co-Polymerization 265 7.2.3 Experimental Concept 268 7.3 Fiber Properties Defined by the Surface Chemistry of Deposited Layers 269 7.3.1 Wetting and Adhesion 269 7.3.2 Wetting and Protein Adhesion - Antifouling Surfaces 271 7.3.3 Highly Liquid Repellent Technical Textiles 276 7.3.4 Patterned Wettablitity 280 7.4 Fiber Modification by Bulk Properties of Deposited Layers 281 7.4.1 Mechanical and Thermal Stability 282 7.4.2 Barrier Function 284 7.4.3 Charge Storage 285 7.4.4 Permanent Flame Retardant Finish 287 7.5 Summary and Outlook 289 References 291 Part 3 Innovative Functionalities of Textiles 8 Glimpses into Tunable Wettability of Textiles 299 Pelagia Glampedaki 8.1 Introduction 300 8.2 Paths to Tunable Wettability 302 8.2.1 Fibre and Textile Surface Functionalisation 305 8.2.2 Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogel Functionalising Systems 306 8.2.3 Modes of Functionalisation and Additional Parameters to be Considered 308 8.3 Practical Aspects and Applications 314 8.4 Prospects 316 8.5 Summary 318 References 318 9 3D Textile Structures for Harvesting Water from Fog: Overview and Perspectives 325 Jamal Sarsour, Thomas Stegmaier and Goetz Gresser 9.1 Introduction 326 9.2 Biological Models 327 9.2.1 Namib Desert Grass 327 9.2.2 Black Beetle in the Namib Desert 328 9.2.3 Epiphytic bromeliads 328 9.2.4 Pinus canariensis 330 9.3 Textile Development and Engineering 331 9.3.1 Fog Harvesting Efficiency in the Laboratory 333 9.3.2 Model of Drop Formation on the Yarn System of 3D Textiles 324 9.3.3 Scale Up to an Industrial Process 326 9.4 Technical Realization 340 9.5 Summary and Prospects 342 References 342 10 Textile-Fixed Catalysts and their Use in Heterogeneous Catalysis 345 Klaus Opwis, Katharina Kiehl, Thomas Straube, Thomas Mayer-Gall and Jochen S. Gutmann 10.1 Introduction 346 10.2 Immobilization of Catalysts on Textile Carrier Materials 348 10.2.1 Inorganic Catalysts 348 10.2.2 Organo-Metallic Catalysts 350 10.2.3 Enzymes 352 10.2.4 Organic Catalysts 355 10.3 Summary and Outlook 357 Acknowledgements 358 References 359 11 Medical Textiles as Substrates for Tissue Engineering 363 Sahar Salehi, Mahshid Kharaziha, Nafiseh Masoumi, Afsoon Fallahi, and Ali Tamayol 11.1 Introduction 364 11.1.1 Concept of TE 364 11.1.2 Background of Medical Textiles in TE 365 11.2 Fiber Formation Approaches 368 11.2.1 Wet Spinning 368 11.2.2 Melt Spinning 369 11.2.3 Microfluidic Spinning 369 11.2.4 Self-Assembly 371 11.3 Fiber-Based Architectures for the TE Scaffold 371 11.3.1 Woven Fabrics 371 11.3.2 Knitted Fabrics 373 11.3.3 Braided Fabrics 375 11.3.4 Non-Woven Fabrics 375 11.3.5 Bioprinting 377 11.4 Applications of Medical Textiles in TE 380 11.4.1 Musculoskeletal Tissues 380 11.4.2 Muscular Tissues 387 11.4.3 Ocular Tissues 391 11.4.4 Nerve Tissue 394 11.4.5 Skin 397 11.5 Summary and Prospects 399 Note 400 References 400 Part 4 Fiber-Reinforced Composites 12 Thermoset Resin Based Fiber Reinforced Biocomposites 425 D. Kalita and A. N. Netravali 12.1 Introduction 426 12.1.1 Reinforcements and Fillers 427 12.1.2 Resins 429 12.1.3 Composites 430 12.1.4 Nanocomposites 430 12.1.5 Interfaces 431 12.1.6 Petroleum Based and Biobased Resins and Fibers 432 12.2 Characteristics of Biocomposites 433 12.3 Composite Classification 434 12.3.1 Hybrid Composites 434 12.3.2 'Greener' Composites 435 12.3.3 'Green' Composites 435 12.4 Natural Fiber Processing 436 12.4.1 Fiber Extraction 437 12.4.2 Fiber Treatments 437 12.4.3 Fiber Forms (Nonwoven, Woven, Knitted) 438 12.5 Polymeric Resins 439 12.5.1 Green Resins 440 12.5.2 Thermoset Green Resins 441 12.5.2.1 Protein Based Resins 441 12.5.2.2 Starch Based Resins 444 12.5.2.3 Fats/Lipids/Oils Based Resins 447 12.6 Biobased Thermoset Composites 448 12.6.1 Plant Based Cellulose Fiber Biocomposites 449 12.6.2 Starch Based Biocomposites 450 12.6.3 Protein Based Biocomposites 452 12.6.4 Chitosan Based Biocomposites 453 12.6.5 Lipid Based Biocomposites 453 12.7 Bionanocomposites 456 12.7.1 Starch Based Nanocomposites 457 12.7.2 Cellulose Based Nanocomposites 458 12.7.3 Protein Based Nanocomposites 460 12.7.4 Chitosan Based Nanocomposites 462 12.8 Applications and Advantages of Biocomposites 463 12.9 Opportunity and Challenges 466 12.10 Summary 468 References 469 13 Characterisation of Fibre/Matrix Adhesion in Biobased Fibre-Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites 485 J. Mussig and N. Graupner 13.1 Introduction 485 13.1.1 Terms and Definitions 487 13.1.1.1 Fibre 487 13.1.1.2 Fibre Bundle 487 13.1.1.3 Equivalent Diameter 488 13.1.1.4 Critical Length 488 13.1.1.5 Aspect Ratio and Critical Aspect Ratio 489 13.1.1.6 Single Element versus Collective 489 13.1.1.7 Collective Test to Measure Pull-Out 490 13.1.1.8 Interface and Interphase 490 13.1.1.9 Adhesion and Adherence 492 13.1.1.10 Practical & Theoretical Fibre/Matrix Adhesion 492 13.1.2 Terminology and Properties of Fibres and Matrices 492 13.1.2.1 Polymer Matrices 492 13.1.2.2 Natural Fibres 496 13.1.2.3 Regenerated Cellulose Fibres 497 13.2 Methods 503 13.2.1 Overview 503 13.2.2 Single Fibre/Single Fibre Bundle Tests 504 13.2.2.1 Pull-Out and Microbond Tests 504 13.2.2.2 Fragmentation Test 529 13.2.3 Composite Tests 534 13.2.3.1 Double-Notched Tensile Test 534 13.2.3.2 Iosipescu Shear Test 536 13.2.3.3 90 Degrees (Off-Axis) Tensile Test and 90 Degrees (Off-Axis) Bending Test 537 13.2.3.4 Short Beam Shear Test 538 13.3 Comparison of Data 539 13.4 Summary 543 Acknowledgements 545 References 545 Index 557
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Preface xv Part 1 Recent Developments and Current Challenges in Textile Finishing 1 Recent Concepts of Antimicrobial Textile Finishes 3 Barbara Simon?i? and Brigita Tomsi? 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Antimicrobial Agents 5 1.2.1 Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Activity 6 1.2.2 Structures of Antimicrobial Agents 7 1.2.2.1 Leaching Antimicrobial Agents 7 1.2.2.2 Bound Antimicrobial Agents 17 1.3 Low Adhesion Agents 21 1.4 Dual-Action Antimicrobial Agents 24 1.5 Evaluation of Antimicrobial Activity of Functionalized Textiles 29 1.5.1 Standardized Methods for the Determination of Antibacterial Activity 31 1.5.2 Standardized Methods for the Determination of Antifungal Activity 35 1.6 Health and Environmental Issues 39 1.6.1 Health and Environmental Impacts of Antimicrobial Compounds 41 1.7 Future Trends 46 1.8 Summary 46 Acknowledgement 48 References 48 2 Flame Retardant Textile Finishes 69 A Richard Horrocks 2.1 Introduction 70 2.2 Current Commercial, Durable Flame Retardants: Advantages and Disadvantages 71 2.3 Current Challenges 78 2.3.1 Minimisation of Effluents 78 2.3.2 Replacing Formaldehyde Chemistry, Particularly with Respect to Cotton and Blended Fabrics 82 2.3.2.1 Oligomeric Phosphate-Phosphonate 83 2.3.2.2 Multifunctional Carboxylic Acids 83 2.3.2.3 Alkyl Phosphoramidate Adduct 86 2.3.2.4 Phosphonyl Cyanurates 87 2.3.2.5 Cellulose-Phosphoramidate Ester Interchange 88 2.3.2.6 Cellulose-Chloro Triazinyl Derivative Condensation 89 2.3.2.7 Phosphorus Acid Derivatives of Cellulose 90 2.3.2.8 Phosphorus-Nitrogen-Silicon Developments 91 2.3.2.9 Polymer Networks 92 2.3.2.10 Other Finishing Treatments 93 2.3.3 Replacing Bromine, Notably in Coating and Back-Coating Formulations 94 2.3.3.1 Reducing the BrFR Concentrations 95 2.3.3.2 Possible Bromine-Chlorine and Phosphorus-Bromine Synergies 96 2.3.3.3 Effectiveness of Phosphorus 97 2.3.3.4 The Sensitisation of Decomposition or Flame Retarding Efficiency of Phosphorus-Based Systems 99 2.3.3.5 The Introduction of a Volatile and Possible Vapour-Phase Active, Phosphorus-Based Flame Retardant Component 99 2.4 Novel Surface Chemistries 101 2.4.1 Sol-Gel Surface Treatments 103 2.4.2 Layer-by-Layer Treatments 107 2.4.3 Polymer Coating and UV and Plasma Grafting Treatments 111 2.4.3.1 Plasma Treatments 112 2.4.3.2 UV and Other Grafting Treatments 116 2.5 Summary 117 References 117 Bibliography 127 3 Striving for Self-Cleaning Textiles - Critical Thoughts on Current Literature 129 Thomas Bahners and Kash Mittal 3.1 Introduction 130 3.2 Fundamental Principles 133 3.2.1 Self-Cleaning - The Super-Hydrophobic Approach 133 3.2.2 Self-Cleaning - The Super-Hydrophilic Approach 136 3.2.3 Expected Merits of the Concepts 138 3.3 Attempts to Attain Super-Hydrophobic Behavior 140 3.3.1 Minimized Surface Free Energy 140 3.3.1.1 Novel Chemical Finishes of Non-Polar Character 141 3.3.1.2 Deposition of Non-Polar Thin Layers by Plasma and Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD) 142 3.3.1.3 Deposition of Non-Polar Thin Layers by Photo-Chemical Surface Modification 145 3.3.2 Enhancing Liquid Repellence by Adding Surface Roughness 147 3.3.2.1 Application of Micro- and Nano-Rough (Hybrid) Coatings 147 3.3.2.2 Incorporation of Micro- and Nanoparticles 149 3.3.2.3 Laser-Based Surface Roughening 151 3.4 Attempts to Attain Super-Hydrophilic Properties 153 3.4.1 Use of Photo-Catalytic TiO2 153 3.4.2 Making Use of Micro-Roughness According to the Wenzel Model 155 3.5 Relevance for Dirt Take-Up, Cleanability, and Self-Cleaning 156 3.6 Summary 160 References 162 4 Metallization of Polymers and Textiles 171 Piotr Rytlewski, Krzysztof Moraczewski and Bart?omiej Jagodzi?ski 4.1 Introduction 171 4.2 Main Methods of Metallization 173 4.2.1 Methods Based on Physical Vapor Deposition 173 4.2.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition Methods 178 4.3 Electroless Metallization 184 4.4 Summary 198 References 199 5 Wettability Characterization in Textiles - Use and Abuse of Measuring Procedures 207 Thomas Bahners, Helga Thomas and Jochen S. Gutmann 5.1 Introduction 208 5.2 Peculiarities of Textile Substrates 209 5.3 Wettability Measurements on Fabrics 213 5.3.1 Contact Angle Measurements 213 5.3.2 Drop Penetration Tests 217 5.3.3 Soaking or Rising Height Test 222 5.3.4 The Wilhelmy Method 224 5.4 Contact Angle Measurements on Fibers 226 5.4.1 Adapting the Wilhelmy Plate Method to Single Fibers 226 5.4.2 The Washburn Approach - Wilhelmy Wicking Method 226 5.5 Summary and Concluding Remarks 228 Acknowledgements 231 References 231 Part 2 Surface Modification Techniques for Textiles 6 Surface Functionalization of Synthetic Textiles by Atmospheric Pressure Plasma 237 Keiko Gotoh 6.1 Introduction 237 6.2 Processing Parameters of Atmospheric Pressure Plasma (APP) Jet 239 6.3 Change in Single Fiber Wettability Due to APP Jet Treatment 241 6.4 Hydrophobic Recovery after APP Jet Treatment 244 6.5 Chemical and Topographical Changes on Fiber Surface Due to APP Jet Treatment 245 6.6 Fabric Damage Due to APP Jet Treatment 247 6.7 Improvement of Textile Serviceability Properties by APP Jet Treatment 250 6.7.1 Water Wicking Property 250 6.7.2 Detergency 251 6.7.3 Dyeability 252 6.8 Summary and Prospects 254 Acknowledgements 254 References 255 7 UV-Based Photo-Chemical Surface Modification of Textile Fabrics 261 Thomas Bahners and Jochen S. Gutmann 7.1 Introduction 261 7.2 Fundamentals of the Process 263 7.2.1 Photo-Addition, Irradiation in Air 263 7.2.2 Layer Formation by Homo-Polymerization and Graft-co-Polymerization 265 7.2.3 Experimental Concept 268 7.3 Fiber Properties Defined by the Surface Chemistry of Deposited Layers 269 7.3.1 Wetting and Adhesion 269 7.3.2 Wetting and Protein Adhesion - Antifouling Surfaces 271 7.3.3 Highly Liquid Repellent Technical Textiles 276 7.3.4 Patterned Wettablitity 280 7.4 Fiber Modification by Bulk Properties of Deposited Layers 281 7.4.1 Mechanical and Thermal Stability 282 7.4.2 Barrier Function 284 7.4.3 Charge Storage 285 7.4.4 Permanent Flame Retardant Finish 287 7.5 Summary and Outlook 289 References 291 Part 3 Innovative Functionalities of Textiles 8 Glimpses into Tunable Wettability of Textiles 299 Pelagia Glampedaki 8.1 Introduction 300 8.2 Paths to Tunable Wettability 302 8.2.1 Fibre and Textile Surface Functionalisation 305 8.2.2 Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogel Functionalising Systems 306 8.2.3 Modes of Functionalisation and Additional Parameters to be Considered 308 8.3 Practical Aspects and Applications 314 8.4 Prospects 316 8.5 Summary 318 References 318 9 3D Textile Structures for Harvesting Water from Fog: Overview and Perspectives 325 Jamal Sarsour, Thomas Stegmaier and Goetz Gresser 9.1 Introduction 326 9.2 Biological Models 327 9.2.1 Namib Desert Grass 327 9.2.2 Black Beetle in the Namib Desert 328 9.2.3 Epiphytic bromeliads 328 9.2.4 Pinus canariensis 330 9.3 Textile Development and Engineering 331 9.3.1 Fog Harvesting Efficiency in the Laboratory 333 9.3.2 Model of Drop Formation on the Yarn System of 3D Textiles 324 9.3.3 Scale Up to an Industrial Process 326 9.4 Technical Realization 340 9.5 Summary and Prospects 342 References 342 10 Textile-Fixed Catalysts and their Use in Heterogeneous Catalysis 345 Klaus Opwis, Katharina Kiehl, Thomas Straube, Thomas Mayer-Gall and Jochen S. Gutmann 10.1 Introduction 346 10.2 Immobilization of Catalysts on Textile Carrier Materials 348 10.2.1 Inorganic Catalysts 348 10.2.2 Organo-Metallic Catalysts 350 10.2.3 Enzymes 352 10.2.4 Organic Catalysts 355 10.3 Summary and Outlook 357 Acknowledgements 358 References 359 11 Medical Textiles as Substrates for Tissue Engineering 363 Sahar Salehi, Mahshid Kharaziha, Nafiseh Masoumi, Afsoon Fallahi, and Ali Tamayol 11.1 Introduction 364 11.1.1 Concept of TE 364 11.1.2 Background of Medical Textiles in TE 365 11.2 Fiber Formation Approaches 368 11.2.1 Wet Spinning 368 11.2.2 Melt Spinning 369 11.2.3 Microfluidic Spinning 369 11.2.4 Self-Assembly 371 11.3 Fiber-Based Architectures for the TE Scaffold 371 11.3.1 Woven Fabrics 371 11.3.2 Knitted Fabrics 373 11.3.3 Braided Fabrics 375 11.3.4 Non-Woven Fabrics 375 11.3.5 Bioprinting 377 11.4 Applications of Medical Textiles in TE 380 11.4.1 Musculoskeletal Tissues 380 11.4.2 Muscular Tissues 387 11.4.3 Ocular Tissues 391 11.4.4 Nerve Tissue 394 11.4.5 Skin 397 11.5 Summary and Prospects 399 Note 400 References 400 Part 4 Fiber-Reinforced Composites 12 Thermoset Resin Based Fiber Reinforced Biocomposites 425 D. Kalita and A. N. Netravali 12.1 Introduction 426 12.1.1 Reinforcements and Fillers 427 12.1.2 Resins 429 12.1.3 Composites 430 12.1.4 Nanocomposites 430 12.1.5 Interfaces 431 12.1.6 Petroleum Based and Biobased Resins and Fibers 432 12.2 Characteristics of Biocomposites 433 12.3 Composite Classification 434 12.3.1 Hybrid Composites 434 12.3.2 'Greener' Composites 435 12.3.3 'Green' Composites 435 12.4 Natural Fiber Processing 436 12.4.1 Fiber Extraction 437 12.4.2 Fiber Treatments 437 12.4.3 Fiber Forms (Nonwoven, Woven, Knitted) 438 12.5 Polymeric Resins 439 12.5.1 Green Resins 440 12.5.2 Thermoset Green Resins 441 12.5.2.1 Protein Based Resins 441 12.5.2.2 Starch Based Resins 444 12.5.2.3 Fats/Lipids/Oils Based Resins 447 12.6 Biobased Thermoset Composites 448 12.6.1 Plant Based Cellulose Fiber Biocomposites 449 12.6.2 Starch Based Biocomposites 450 12.6.3 Protein Based Biocomposites 452 12.6.4 Chitosan Based Biocomposites 453 12.6.5 Lipid Based Biocomposites 453 12.7 Bionanocomposites 456 12.7.1 Starch Based Nanocomposites 457 12.7.2 Cellulose Based Nanocomposites 458 12.7.3 Protein Based Nanocomposites 460 12.7.4 Chitosan Based Nanocomposites 462 12.8 Applications and Advantages of Biocomposites 463 12.9 Opportunity and Challenges 466 12.10 Summary 468 References 469 13 Characterisation of Fibre/Matrix Adhesion in Biobased Fibre-Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites 485 J. Mussig and N. Graupner 13.1 Introduction 485 13.1.1 Terms and Definitions 487 13.1.1.1 Fibre 487 13.1.1.2 Fibre Bundle 487 13.1.1.3 Equivalent Diameter 488 13.1.1.4 Critical Length 488 13.1.1.5 Aspect Ratio and Critical Aspect Ratio 489 13.1.1.6 Single Element versus Collective 489 13.1.1.7 Collective Test to Measure Pull-Out 490 13.1.1.8 Interface and Interphase 490 13.1.1.9 Adhesion and Adherence 492 13.1.1.10 Practical & Theoretical Fibre/Matrix Adhesion 492 13.1.2 Terminology and Properties of Fibres and Matrices 492 13.1.2.1 Polymer Matrices 492 13.1.2.2 Natural Fibres 496 13.1.2.3 Regenerated Cellulose Fibres 497 13.2 Methods 503 13.2.1 Overview 503 13.2.2 Single Fibre/Single Fibre Bundle Tests 504 13.2.2.1 Pull-Out and Microbond Tests 504 13.2.2.2 Fragmentation Test 529 13.2.3 Composite Tests 534 13.2.3.1 Double-Notched Tensile Test 534 13.2.3.2 Iosipescu Shear Test 536 13.2.3.3 90 Degrees (Off-Axis) Tensile Test and 90 Degrees (Off-Axis) Bending Test 537 13.2.3.4 Short Beam Shear Test 538 13.3 Comparison of Data 539 13.4 Summary 543 Acknowledgements 545 References 545 Index 557
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