Introduction to Petroleum Engineering
-15%
portes grátis
Introduction to Petroleum Engineering
;
John Wiley and Sons Ltd
09/2016
352
Dura
Inglês
9781119193449
15 a 20 dias
Descrição não disponível.
About the Authors xiii Preface xv About the Companion Website xvi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 What is Petroleum Engineering? 1 1.1.1 Alternative Energy Opportunities 3 1.1.2 Oil and Gas Units 3 1.1.3 Production Performance Ratios 4 1.1.4 Classification of Oil and Gas 4 1.2 Life Cycle of a Reservoir 6 1.3 Reservoir Management 9 1.3.1 Recovery Efficiency 9 1.4 Petroleum Economics 11 1.4.1 The Price of Oil 14 1.4.2 How Does Oil Price Affect Oil Recovery? 14 1.4.3 How High Can Oil Prices Go? 15 1.5 Petroleum and the Environment 16 1.5.1 Anthropogenic Climate Change 16 1.5.2 Environmental Issues 19 1.6 Activities 20 1.6.1 Further Reading 20 1.6.2 True/False 21 1.6.3 Exercises 21 2 The Future of Energy 23 2.1 Global Oil and Gas Production and Consumption 23 2.2 Resources and Reserves 24 2.2.1 Reserves 27 2.3 Oil and Gas Resources 29 2.3.1 Coal Gas 29 2.3.2 Gas Hydrates 31 2.3.3 Tight Gas Sands, Shale Gas, and Shale Oil 31 2.3.4 Tar Sands 33 2.4 Global Distribution of Oil and Gas Reserves 34 2.5 Peak Oil 36 2.5.1 World Oil Production Rate Peak 37 2.5.2 World Per Capita Oil Production Rate Peak 37 2.6 Future Energy Options 39 2.6.1 Goldilocks Policy for Energy Transition 39 2.7 Activities 42 2.7.1 Further Reading 42 2.7.2 True/False 42 2.7.3 Exercises 42 3 Properties of Reservoir Fluids 45 3.1 Origin 45 3.2 Classification 47 3.3 Definitions 51 3.4 Gas Properties 54 3.5 Oil Properties 55 3.6 Water Properties 60 3.7 Sources of Fluid Data 61 3.7.1 Constant Composition Expansion 61 3.7.2 Differential Liberation 62 3.7.3 Separator Test 62 3.8 Applications of Fluid Properties 63 3.9 Activities 64 3.9.1 Further Reading 64 3.9.2 True/False 64 3.9.3 Exercises 64 4 Properties of Reservoir Rock 67 4.1 Porosity 67 4.1.1 Compressibility of Pore Volume 69 4.1.2 Saturation 70 4.1.3 Volumetric Analysis 71 4.2 Permeability 71 4.2.1 Pressure Dependence of Permeability 73 4.2.2 Superficial Velocity and Interstitial Velocity 74 4.2.3 Radial Flow of Liquids 74 4.2.4 Radial Flow of Gases 75 4.3 Reservoir Heterogeneity and Permeability 76 4.3.1 Parallel Configuration 76 4.3.2 Series Configuration 76 4.3.3 Dykstra Parsons Coefficient 77 4.4 Directional Permeability 79 4.5 Activities 80 4.5.1 Further Reading 80 4.5.2 True/False 80 4.5.3 Exercises 80 5 Multiphase Flow 83 5.1 Interfacial Tension, Wettability, and Capillary Pressure 83 5.2 Fluid Distribution and Capillary Pressure 86 5.3 Relative Permeability 88 5.4 Mobility and Fractional Flow 90 5.5 One -dimensional Water-oil Displacement 91 5.6 Well Productivity 95 5.7 Activities 97 5.7.1 Further Reading 97 5.7.2 True/False 97 5.7.3 Exercises 98 6 Petroleum Geology 101 6.1 Geologic History of the Earth 101 6.1.1 Formation of the Rocky Mountains 106 6.2 Rocks and Formations 107 6.2.1 Formations 108 6.3 Sedimentary Basins and Traps 111 6.3.1 Traps 111 6.4 What Do You Need to form a Hydrocarbon Reservoir? 112 6.5 Volumetric Analysis, Recovery Factor, and EUR 113 6.5.1 Volumetric Oil in Place 114 6.5.2 Volumetric Gas in Place 114 6.5.3 Recovery Factor and Estimated Ultimate Recovery 115 6.6 Activities 115 6.6.1 Further Reading 115 6.6.2 True/False 116 6.6.3 Exercises 116 7 Reservoir Geophysics 119 7.1 Seismic Waves 119 7.1.1 Earthquake Magnitude 122 7.2 Acoustic Impedance and Reflection Coefficients 124 7.3 Seismic Resolution 126 7.3.1 Vertical Resolution 126 7.3.2 Lateral Resolution 127 7.3.3 Exploration Geophysics and Reservoir Geophysics 128 7.4 Seismic Data Acquisition, Processing, and Interpretation 129 7.4.1 Data Acquisition 129 7.4.2 Data Processing 130 7.4.3 Data Interpretation 130 7.5 Petroelastic Model 131 7.5.1 IFM Velocities 131 7.5.2 IFM Moduli 132 7.6 Geomechanical Model 133 7.7 Activities 135 7.7.1 Further Reading 135 7.7.2 True/False 135 7.7.3 Exercises 135 8 Drilling 137 8.1 Drilling Rights 137 8.2 Rotary Drilling Rigs 138 8.2.1 Power Systems 139 8.2.2 Hoisting System 141 8.2.3 Rotation System 141 8.2.4 Drill String and Bits 143 8.2.5 Circulation System 146 8.2.6 Well Control System 148 8.3 The Drilling Process 149 8.3.1 Planning 149 8.3.2 Site Preparation 150 8.3.3 Drilling 151 8.3.4 Open -Hole Logging 152 8.3.5 Setting Production Casing 153 8.4 Types of Wells 155 8.4.1 Well Spacing and Infill Drilling 155 8.4.2 Directional Wells 156 8.4.3 Extended Reach Drilling 158 8.5 Activities 158 8.5.1 Further Reading 158 8.5.2 True/False 158 8.5.3 Exercises 159 9 Well Logging 161 9.1 Logging Environment 161 9.1.1 Wellbore and Formation 162 9.1.2 Open or Cased? 163 9.1.3 Depth of Investigation 164 9.2 Lithology Logs 164 9.2.1 Gamma -Ray Logs 164 9.2.2 Spontaneous Potential Logs 165 9.2.3 Photoelectric Log 167 9.3 Porosity Logs 167 9.3.1 Density Logs 167 9.3.2 Acoustic Logs 168 9.3.3 Neutron Logs 169 9.4 Resistivity Logs 170 9.5 Other Types of Logs 174 9.5.1 Borehole Imaging 174 9.5.2 Spectral Gamma -Ray Logs 174 9.5.3 Dipmeter Logs 174 9.6 Log Calibration with Formation Samples 175 9.6.1 Mud Logs 175 9.6.2 Whole Core 175 9.6.3 Sidewall Core 176 9.7 Measurement While Drilling and Logging While Drilling 176 9.8 Reservoir Characterization Issues 177 9.8.1 Well Log Legacy 177 9.8.2 Cutoffs 177 9.8.3 Cross -Plots 178 9.8.4 Continuity of Formations between Wells 178 9.8.5 Log Suites 179 9.8.6 Scales of Reservoir Information 180 9.9 Activities 182 9.9.1 Further Reading 182 9.9.2 True/False 182 9.9.3 Exercises 182 10 Well Completions 185 10.1 Skin 186 10.2 Production Casing and Liners 188 10.3 Perforating 189 10.4 Acidizing 192 10.5 Hydraulic Fracturing 193 10.5.1 Horizontal Wells 201 10.6 Wellbore and Surface Hardware 202 10.7 Activities 203 10.7.1 Further Reading 203 10.7.2 True/False 203 10.7.3 Exercises 204 11 Upstream Facilities 205 11.1 Onshore Facilities 205 11.2 Flash Calculation for Separators 208 11.3 Pressure Rating for Separators 211 11.4 Single -Phase Flow in Pipe 213 11.5 Multiphase Flow in Pipe 216 11.5.1 Modeling Multiphase Flow in Pipes 217 11.6 Well Patterns 218 11.6.1 Intelligent Wells and Intelligent Fields 219 11.7 Offshore Facilities 221 11.8 Urban Operations: The Barnett Shale 224 11.9 Activities 225 11.9.1 Further Reading 225 11.9.2 True/False 225 11.9.3 Exercises 225 12 Transient Well Testing 227 12.1 Pressure Transient Testing 227 12.1.1 Flow Regimes 228 12.1.2 Types of Pressure Transient Tests 228 12.2 Oil Well Pressure Transient Testing 229 12.2.1 Pressure Buildup Test 232 12.2.2 Interpreting Pressure Transient Tests 235 12.2.3 Radius of Investigation of a Liquid Well 237 12.3 Gas Well Pressure Transient Testing 237 12.3.1 Diffusivity Equation 238 12.3.2 Pressure Buildup Test in a Gas Well 238 12.3.3 Radius of Investigation 239 12.3.4 Pressure Drawdown Test and the Reservoir Limit Test 240 12.3.5 Rate Transient Analysis 241 12.3.6 Two -Rate Test 242 12.4 Gas Well Deliverability 242 12.4.1 The SBA Method 244 12.4.2 The LIT Method 245 12.5 Summary of Transient Well Testing 246 12.6 Activities 246 12.6.1 Further Reading 246 12.6.2 True/False 246 12.6.3 Exercises 247 13 Production Performance 249 13.1 Field Performance Data 249 13.1.1 Bubble Mapping 250 13.2 Decline Curve Analysis 251 13.2.1 Alternative DCA Models 253 13.3 Probabilistic DCA 254 13.4 Oil Reservoir Material Balance 256 13.4.1 Undersaturated Oil Reservoir with Water Influx 257 13.4.2 Schilthuis Material Balance Equation 258 13.5 Gas Reservoir Material Balance 261 13.5.1 Depletion Drive Gas Reservoir 262 13.6 Depletion Drive Mechanisms and Recovery Efficiencies 263 13.7 Inflow Performance Relationships 266 13.8 Activities 267 13.8.1 Further Reading 267 13.8.2 True/False 267 13.8.3 Exercises 268 14 Reservoir Performance 271 14.1 Reservoir Flow Simulators 271 14.1.1 Flow Units 272 14.1.2 Reservoir Characterization Using Flow Units 272 14.2 Reservoir Flow Modeling Workflows 274 14.3 Performance of Conventional Oil and Gas Reservoirs 276 14.3.1 Wilmington Field, California: Immiscible Displacement by Water Flooding 277 14.3.2 Prudhoe Bay Field, Alaska: Water Flood, Gas Cycling, and Miscible Gas Injection 278 14.4 Performance of an Unconventional Reservoir 280 14.4.1 Barnett Shale, Texas: Shale Gas Production 280 14.5 Performance of Geothermal Reservoirs 285 14.6 Activities 287 14.6.1 Further Reading 287 14.6.2 True/False 287 14.6.3 Exercises 288 15 Midstream and Downstream Operations 291 15.1 The Midstream Sector 291 15.2 The Downstream Sector: Refineries 294 15.2.1 Separation 295 15.2.2 Conversion 299 15.2.3 Purification 300 15.2.4 Refinery Maintenance 300 15.3 The Downstream Sector: Natural Gas Processing Plants 300 15.4 Sakhalin -2 Project, Sakhalin Island, Russia 301 15.4.1 History of Sakhalin Island 302 15.4.2 The Sakhalin -2 Project 306 15.5 Activities 310 15.5.1 Further Reading 310 15.5.2 True/False 310 15.5.3 Exercises 311 Appendix Unit Conversion Factors 313 References 317 Index 327
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About the Authors xiii Preface xv About the Companion Website xvi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 What is Petroleum Engineering? 1 1.1.1 Alternative Energy Opportunities 3 1.1.2 Oil and Gas Units 3 1.1.3 Production Performance Ratios 4 1.1.4 Classification of Oil and Gas 4 1.2 Life Cycle of a Reservoir 6 1.3 Reservoir Management 9 1.3.1 Recovery Efficiency 9 1.4 Petroleum Economics 11 1.4.1 The Price of Oil 14 1.4.2 How Does Oil Price Affect Oil Recovery? 14 1.4.3 How High Can Oil Prices Go? 15 1.5 Petroleum and the Environment 16 1.5.1 Anthropogenic Climate Change 16 1.5.2 Environmental Issues 19 1.6 Activities 20 1.6.1 Further Reading 20 1.6.2 True/False 21 1.6.3 Exercises 21 2 The Future of Energy 23 2.1 Global Oil and Gas Production and Consumption 23 2.2 Resources and Reserves 24 2.2.1 Reserves 27 2.3 Oil and Gas Resources 29 2.3.1 Coal Gas 29 2.3.2 Gas Hydrates 31 2.3.3 Tight Gas Sands, Shale Gas, and Shale Oil 31 2.3.4 Tar Sands 33 2.4 Global Distribution of Oil and Gas Reserves 34 2.5 Peak Oil 36 2.5.1 World Oil Production Rate Peak 37 2.5.2 World Per Capita Oil Production Rate Peak 37 2.6 Future Energy Options 39 2.6.1 Goldilocks Policy for Energy Transition 39 2.7 Activities 42 2.7.1 Further Reading 42 2.7.2 True/False 42 2.7.3 Exercises 42 3 Properties of Reservoir Fluids 45 3.1 Origin 45 3.2 Classification 47 3.3 Definitions 51 3.4 Gas Properties 54 3.5 Oil Properties 55 3.6 Water Properties 60 3.7 Sources of Fluid Data 61 3.7.1 Constant Composition Expansion 61 3.7.2 Differential Liberation 62 3.7.3 Separator Test 62 3.8 Applications of Fluid Properties 63 3.9 Activities 64 3.9.1 Further Reading 64 3.9.2 True/False 64 3.9.3 Exercises 64 4 Properties of Reservoir Rock 67 4.1 Porosity 67 4.1.1 Compressibility of Pore Volume 69 4.1.2 Saturation 70 4.1.3 Volumetric Analysis 71 4.2 Permeability 71 4.2.1 Pressure Dependence of Permeability 73 4.2.2 Superficial Velocity and Interstitial Velocity 74 4.2.3 Radial Flow of Liquids 74 4.2.4 Radial Flow of Gases 75 4.3 Reservoir Heterogeneity and Permeability 76 4.3.1 Parallel Configuration 76 4.3.2 Series Configuration 76 4.3.3 Dykstra Parsons Coefficient 77 4.4 Directional Permeability 79 4.5 Activities 80 4.5.1 Further Reading 80 4.5.2 True/False 80 4.5.3 Exercises 80 5 Multiphase Flow 83 5.1 Interfacial Tension, Wettability, and Capillary Pressure 83 5.2 Fluid Distribution and Capillary Pressure 86 5.3 Relative Permeability 88 5.4 Mobility and Fractional Flow 90 5.5 One -dimensional Water-oil Displacement 91 5.6 Well Productivity 95 5.7 Activities 97 5.7.1 Further Reading 97 5.7.2 True/False 97 5.7.3 Exercises 98 6 Petroleum Geology 101 6.1 Geologic History of the Earth 101 6.1.1 Formation of the Rocky Mountains 106 6.2 Rocks and Formations 107 6.2.1 Formations 108 6.3 Sedimentary Basins and Traps 111 6.3.1 Traps 111 6.4 What Do You Need to form a Hydrocarbon Reservoir? 112 6.5 Volumetric Analysis, Recovery Factor, and EUR 113 6.5.1 Volumetric Oil in Place 114 6.5.2 Volumetric Gas in Place 114 6.5.3 Recovery Factor and Estimated Ultimate Recovery 115 6.6 Activities 115 6.6.1 Further Reading 115 6.6.2 True/False 116 6.6.3 Exercises 116 7 Reservoir Geophysics 119 7.1 Seismic Waves 119 7.1.1 Earthquake Magnitude 122 7.2 Acoustic Impedance and Reflection Coefficients 124 7.3 Seismic Resolution 126 7.3.1 Vertical Resolution 126 7.3.2 Lateral Resolution 127 7.3.3 Exploration Geophysics and Reservoir Geophysics 128 7.4 Seismic Data Acquisition, Processing, and Interpretation 129 7.4.1 Data Acquisition 129 7.4.2 Data Processing 130 7.4.3 Data Interpretation 130 7.5 Petroelastic Model 131 7.5.1 IFM Velocities 131 7.5.2 IFM Moduli 132 7.6 Geomechanical Model 133 7.7 Activities 135 7.7.1 Further Reading 135 7.7.2 True/False 135 7.7.3 Exercises 135 8 Drilling 137 8.1 Drilling Rights 137 8.2 Rotary Drilling Rigs 138 8.2.1 Power Systems 139 8.2.2 Hoisting System 141 8.2.3 Rotation System 141 8.2.4 Drill String and Bits 143 8.2.5 Circulation System 146 8.2.6 Well Control System 148 8.3 The Drilling Process 149 8.3.1 Planning 149 8.3.2 Site Preparation 150 8.3.3 Drilling 151 8.3.4 Open -Hole Logging 152 8.3.5 Setting Production Casing 153 8.4 Types of Wells 155 8.4.1 Well Spacing and Infill Drilling 155 8.4.2 Directional Wells 156 8.4.3 Extended Reach Drilling 158 8.5 Activities 158 8.5.1 Further Reading 158 8.5.2 True/False 158 8.5.3 Exercises 159 9 Well Logging 161 9.1 Logging Environment 161 9.1.1 Wellbore and Formation 162 9.1.2 Open or Cased? 163 9.1.3 Depth of Investigation 164 9.2 Lithology Logs 164 9.2.1 Gamma -Ray Logs 164 9.2.2 Spontaneous Potential Logs 165 9.2.3 Photoelectric Log 167 9.3 Porosity Logs 167 9.3.1 Density Logs 167 9.3.2 Acoustic Logs 168 9.3.3 Neutron Logs 169 9.4 Resistivity Logs 170 9.5 Other Types of Logs 174 9.5.1 Borehole Imaging 174 9.5.2 Spectral Gamma -Ray Logs 174 9.5.3 Dipmeter Logs 174 9.6 Log Calibration with Formation Samples 175 9.6.1 Mud Logs 175 9.6.2 Whole Core 175 9.6.3 Sidewall Core 176 9.7 Measurement While Drilling and Logging While Drilling 176 9.8 Reservoir Characterization Issues 177 9.8.1 Well Log Legacy 177 9.8.2 Cutoffs 177 9.8.3 Cross -Plots 178 9.8.4 Continuity of Formations between Wells 178 9.8.5 Log Suites 179 9.8.6 Scales of Reservoir Information 180 9.9 Activities 182 9.9.1 Further Reading 182 9.9.2 True/False 182 9.9.3 Exercises 182 10 Well Completions 185 10.1 Skin 186 10.2 Production Casing and Liners 188 10.3 Perforating 189 10.4 Acidizing 192 10.5 Hydraulic Fracturing 193 10.5.1 Horizontal Wells 201 10.6 Wellbore and Surface Hardware 202 10.7 Activities 203 10.7.1 Further Reading 203 10.7.2 True/False 203 10.7.3 Exercises 204 11 Upstream Facilities 205 11.1 Onshore Facilities 205 11.2 Flash Calculation for Separators 208 11.3 Pressure Rating for Separators 211 11.4 Single -Phase Flow in Pipe 213 11.5 Multiphase Flow in Pipe 216 11.5.1 Modeling Multiphase Flow in Pipes 217 11.6 Well Patterns 218 11.6.1 Intelligent Wells and Intelligent Fields 219 11.7 Offshore Facilities 221 11.8 Urban Operations: The Barnett Shale 224 11.9 Activities 225 11.9.1 Further Reading 225 11.9.2 True/False 225 11.9.3 Exercises 225 12 Transient Well Testing 227 12.1 Pressure Transient Testing 227 12.1.1 Flow Regimes 228 12.1.2 Types of Pressure Transient Tests 228 12.2 Oil Well Pressure Transient Testing 229 12.2.1 Pressure Buildup Test 232 12.2.2 Interpreting Pressure Transient Tests 235 12.2.3 Radius of Investigation of a Liquid Well 237 12.3 Gas Well Pressure Transient Testing 237 12.3.1 Diffusivity Equation 238 12.3.2 Pressure Buildup Test in a Gas Well 238 12.3.3 Radius of Investigation 239 12.3.4 Pressure Drawdown Test and the Reservoir Limit Test 240 12.3.5 Rate Transient Analysis 241 12.3.6 Two -Rate Test 242 12.4 Gas Well Deliverability 242 12.4.1 The SBA Method 244 12.4.2 The LIT Method 245 12.5 Summary of Transient Well Testing 246 12.6 Activities 246 12.6.1 Further Reading 246 12.6.2 True/False 246 12.6.3 Exercises 247 13 Production Performance 249 13.1 Field Performance Data 249 13.1.1 Bubble Mapping 250 13.2 Decline Curve Analysis 251 13.2.1 Alternative DCA Models 253 13.3 Probabilistic DCA 254 13.4 Oil Reservoir Material Balance 256 13.4.1 Undersaturated Oil Reservoir with Water Influx 257 13.4.2 Schilthuis Material Balance Equation 258 13.5 Gas Reservoir Material Balance 261 13.5.1 Depletion Drive Gas Reservoir 262 13.6 Depletion Drive Mechanisms and Recovery Efficiencies 263 13.7 Inflow Performance Relationships 266 13.8 Activities 267 13.8.1 Further Reading 267 13.8.2 True/False 267 13.8.3 Exercises 268 14 Reservoir Performance 271 14.1 Reservoir Flow Simulators 271 14.1.1 Flow Units 272 14.1.2 Reservoir Characterization Using Flow Units 272 14.2 Reservoir Flow Modeling Workflows 274 14.3 Performance of Conventional Oil and Gas Reservoirs 276 14.3.1 Wilmington Field, California: Immiscible Displacement by Water Flooding 277 14.3.2 Prudhoe Bay Field, Alaska: Water Flood, Gas Cycling, and Miscible Gas Injection 278 14.4 Performance of an Unconventional Reservoir 280 14.4.1 Barnett Shale, Texas: Shale Gas Production 280 14.5 Performance of Geothermal Reservoirs 285 14.6 Activities 287 14.6.1 Further Reading 287 14.6.2 True/False 287 14.6.3 Exercises 288 15 Midstream and Downstream Operations 291 15.1 The Midstream Sector 291 15.2 The Downstream Sector: Refineries 294 15.2.1 Separation 295 15.2.2 Conversion 299 15.2.3 Purification 300 15.2.4 Refinery Maintenance 300 15.3 The Downstream Sector: Natural Gas Processing Plants 300 15.4 Sakhalin -2 Project, Sakhalin Island, Russia 301 15.4.1 History of Sakhalin Island 302 15.4.2 The Sakhalin -2 Project 306 15.5 Activities 310 15.5.1 Further Reading 310 15.5.2 True/False 310 15.5.3 Exercises 311 Appendix Unit Conversion Factors 313 References 317 Index 327
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