Green Energy to Sustainability: Strategies for Global Industries
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Green Energy to Sustainability: Strategies for Global Industries
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John Wiley and Sons Ltd
04/2020
704
Dura
Inglês
9781119152026
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About the Editors xxi List of Contributors xxv Foreword xxxi Preface xxxiii Part I Structure of the Energy Business 1 1 Economic Growth and the Global Energy Demand 3 Jurgen Scheffran, Miriam Felkers and Rebecca Froese 1.1 Historical Context and Relationship Between Energy and Development 3 1.2 Conceptual Framework for Pathways of Energy Use 6 1.3 World Population Trends and Prospects 7 1.4 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Economic Growth 8 1.5 Global Energy Development 11 1.6 Global Emissions of Greenhouse Gases 14 1.7 Linkages Between Kaya Factors 16 1.7.1 Per Capita Energy and Growth 16 1.7.2 Energy Demand and Economic Production 17 1.7.2.1 Energy as a Production Factor 18 1.7.2.2 Empirical Results 19 1.7.3 Emission-Related Factors 23 1.7.4 Energy-Related Impacts 25 1.7.5 Relative Comparison of the Kaya Factors 26 1.8 Development of Energy Investment 28 1.9 Conditions for Energy Transition and Decarbonization 31 1.9.1 Targets and Pathways of Climate Policy 31 1.9.2 Strategies of Implementation 33 1.9.3 Integrated Assessment and Decision-Making in Transition Processes 35 1.10 Perspectives 37 Acknowledgments 38 References 38 2 The Energy Mix in Japan Post-Fukushima 45 Seiji Nakagame 2.1 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions by Japan 45 2.2 Energy Dependence 46 2.3 The Energy Policy of Japan 48 2.4 Paris Agreement 49 2.5 Prospective Energy Demand 50 2.6 Improvement in Energy Efficiency 50 2.7 Reduction of CO2 Emission in Electric Generation 51 2.8 Development of New Technologies for Decreasing GHG Emissions 51 2.9 Production and Use of Bioethanol in Japan 51 2.10 Production and Use of Hydrocarbons in Japan 52 2.11 Production and Use of Hydrogen in Japan 52 2.12 Contributions of the Japanese Government to Fundamental Research and Development 52 2.13 Perspectives 53 References 53 3 Green Energy in Africa, Asia, and South America 57 Daniel de Castro Assumpcao, Marcelo Hamaguchi, Jose Dilcio Rocha and Adriano P. Mariano 3.1 Introduction 57 3.2 South America 58 3.2.1 Current Status 58 3.2.2 Commercial Deployment and Challenges 60 3.2.3 Perspectives on South America 61 3.3 Africa 62 3.3.1 Current Status 62 3.3.2 Commercial Deployment and Challenges 64 3.3.3 Perspectives on Africa 65 3.4 Southeast Asia 66 3.4.1 Current Status 66 3.4.2 Commercial Deployment and Challenges 67 3.4.3 Perspectives on South East Asia 69 3.5 China 69 3.5.1 Current Status 69 3.5.2 Commercial Deployment and Challenges 71 3.5.3 Perspectives on China 71 3.6 Global Perspectives 72 References 72 4 The Development of Solar Energy Generation Technologies and Global Production Capabilities 77 F. John Hay and N. Ianno 4.1 Introduction 77 4.2 Sunlight and Photosynthesis 78 4.2.1 Photosynthetic Efficiency 79 4.2.2 Actual Efficiencies 79 4.3 Photovoltaic Devices 79 4.4 Overview of Solar Photovoltaic Applications 82 4.5 Perspectives 83 References 84 5 Recent Trends, Opportunities and Challenges of Sustainable Aviation Fuel 85 Libing Zhang, Terri L. Butler and Bin Yang 5.1 Introduction 85 5.2 Overview of the Jet Fuel Market 86 5.2.1 Driving Force of Growing Biojet Fuel Opportunities 86 5.2.2 Biojet Fuel Types and Specifications 88 5.3 Assessment of Environmental Policy and Economic Factors Affecting the Aviation Industry 93 5.3.1 Momentum Building of International Carbon Emission Regulations 94 5.3.2 Increasing Activities to Address the Carbon Emission Control 95 5.3.3 New Technologies and Aviation Operation Improvement 97 5.4 Current Activities Around Biojet in the Aviation Industry 98 5.4.1 Alternative Jet Fuel Deployment and Use 98 5.4.2 Test Flights of Commercial Airlines 100 5.5 Challenges of Future Biojet Fuel Development 100 5.6 Perspectives 104 Acknowledgments 105 References 105 6 The Environmental Impact of Pollution Prevention and Other Sustainable Development Strategies Implemented by the Automotive Manufacturing Industry 111 Sandra D. Gaona, Cheryl Keenan, Cyril Vallet, Lawrence Reichle and Stephen C. DeVito 6.1 Introduction 111 6.2 Overview of the Automotive Manufacturing Industry 112 6.2.1 History 112 6.2.2 Production and Economic Trends 112 6.2.3 Key Players 113 6.3 Chemicals and Chemical Waste in Automotive Manufacturing 114 6.3.1 Emissions from Fuel Combustion 114 6.3.1.1 Automobile Manufacturing GHG Emissions 114 6.3.1.2 Automobile Operation GHG Emissions 114 6.3.2 TRI-Reported Chemical Waste Management 115 6.3.2.1 US EPA Toxics Release Inventory 116 6.3.2.2 Trends in TRI-Reported Chemical Waste Management 117 6.3.2.3 Waste Management Methods 119 6.3.2.4 Trends in Releases 119 6.3.2.5 Automotive Manufacturing vs. All Other Manufacturing Sectors 120 6.4 Pollution Prevention in Automotive Manufacturing 121 6.4.1 Sustainability Trends in Automotive Manufacturing 121 6.4.1.1 Corporate Sustainability Reports 122 6.4.1.2 Eco-Efficiency 122 6.4.1.3 Process and Technology Modifications 123 6.4.1.4 Safer, Environmentally Friendly Alternative Materials 124 6.4.1.5 Recycling of Metals and Solvents 125 6.4.1.6 Metal Scrap and Waste 125 6.4.1.7 Fluids and Solvents 125 6.4.1.8 End-of-Life Vehicles (ELVs) 126 6.4.1.9 Fuel Economy 126 6.4.2 Pollution Prevention Activities Reported to TRI 126 6.4.2.1 Examples of Source Reduction Activities Reported to TRI 129 6.4.2.2 TRI Pollution Prevention Analysis - Effectiveness of Source Reduction Activities 129 6.4.2.3 Barriers to Source Reduction 129 6.5 Perspectives 131 6.5.1 Summary 131 6.5.2 Potential Pollution Prevention Opportunities 133 Disclaimer 134 References 134 7 The Global Demand for Biofuels and Biotechnology-Derived Commodity Chemicals: Technologies, Markets, and Challenges 137 Stephen R. Hughes and Marjorie A. Jones 7.1 Introduction 137 7.2 Overview of Global Energy Demand 137 7.3 Petroleum Demand and Petroleum Products for Potential Replacement by Bioproducts 140 7.4 Role of Biofuels and Biobased Chemicals in Renewable Energy Demand 143 7.5 Achieving Petroleum Replacement with Biobased Fuels and Chemicals 145 7.6 Projections of Global Demand for Biobased Fuels and Chemicals 149 7.7 Potential Impacts on Price of Transportation Fuels and Chemicals Assuming Various Scenarios of World Economic Growth 151 7.8 Projection of Energy-Related CO2 Emissions With or Without Remediation Technology 151 7.9 Government Impact on Demand for Biofuels and Biobased Chemicals 152 7.10 Perspectives 154 References 155 Part II Chemicals and Transportation Fuels from Biomass 157 8 Sustainable Platform Chemicals from Biomass 159 Ankita Juneja and Vijay Singh 8.1 Introduction 159 8.2 2-Carbon 161 8.2.1 Glycolic Acid 161 8.3 3-Carbon 163 8.3.1 Propionic Acid 163 8.3.2 Pyruvic Acid 163 8.3.3 Lactic Acid 166 8.4 4-Carbon 166 8.4.1 Butyric Acid 166 8.4.2 Succinic Acid 167 8.4.3 Malic Acid 168 8.4.4 Putrescine 168 8.5 5-Carbon 169 8.5.1 Itaconic Acid 169 8.5.2 Xylitol 170 8.5.3 Glutaconic Acid and Glutaric Acid 171 8.6 6-Carbon 171 8.6.1 Adipic Acid 171 8.6.2 Muconic Acid 172 8.6.3 Citric Acid 173 8.6.4 Glucaric Acid 173 8.7 Perspectives 174 References 175 9 Biofuels from Microalgae and Seaweeds: Potentials of Industrial Scale Production 185 Licheng Peng, Freeman Lan and Christopher Q. Lan 9.1 Introduction 185 9.2 Biofuels 186 9.2.1 Types of Biofuels 187 9.2.1.1 Biodiesel 187 9.2.1.2 Bioethanol 187 9.2.1.3 Bio-oils and Bio-syngas 188 9.2.1.4 Bio-hydrogen 188 9.2.2 Feedstock of Biofuel Production Based on Plants 188 9.2.2.1 Terrestrial Plants 190 9.2.2.2 Aquatic Plants - Algae 190 9.3 Biofuels from Microalgae and Seaweeds 191 9.3.1 Biofuels from Microalgae 192 9.3.2 Biofuels from Macroalgae (i.e. Seaweeds) 192 9.3.3 Advantages of Algae as the Feedstock of Biofuels 193 9.4 Recent Developments in Algae Processing Technologies 195 9.4.1 Harvesting and Dewatering 195 9.4.2 Extraction Approaches 196 9.4.3 Conversion to Biofuels 198 9.5 Potential for Industrial Scale Production 200 9.5.1 Role of Biofuels in Energy Supply and Environmental Protection 200 9.5.2 Biofuel Demand and Supporting Policies 201 9.5.3 Routes to Cost-Effective Alga-Based Biofuels 202 9.5.3.1 Optimization of Cultivation Processes 202 9.5.3.2 Achieve High Biomass Concentration of Algae 204 9.5.3.3 Co-producing Value-Added Products to Offset Overall Costs 204 9.5.3.4 Combining Alga-Based Biofuel Production with Environment Protection 204 9.6 Progresses in the Commercial Production of Alga-Based Biofuels 205 9.7 Perspectives 209 References 210 10 Advanced Fermentation Technologies: Conversion of Biomass to Ethanol by Organisms Other than Yeasts, a Case for Escherichia coli 219 K. T. Shanmugam, Lorraine P. Yomano, Sean W. York and Lonnie O. Ingram 10.1 Introduction 219 10.2 Zymomonas mobilis 222 10.3 Escherichia coli 223 10.4 Osmotic Stress of High Sugar Concentration 227 10.5 Inhibitor-Tolerant Ethanologenic E. coli 227 10.6 Engineering Bacterial Biocatalysts Other than E. coli for the Production of Ethanol Using the PDC/ADH Pathway 229 10.7 Ethanol Production by Non-PDC Pathways 230 10.8 Partition of Carbon at the Pyruvate Node 231 10.9 Other Metabolic Pathways that Contribute to Ethanol Production 231 10.10 Perspectives 232 Acknowledgements 232 References 233 11 Clostridia and Process Engineering for Energy Generation 239 Adriano P. Mariano, Danilo S. Braz, Henrique C. A. Venturelli and Nasib Qureshi 11.1 Introduction 239 11.2 Recent Technological Advances 241 11.2.1 Micro-organisms 241 11.2.2 Novel Substrates 243 11.2.3 Biomass Pretreatment 244 11.2.4 Novel Product Recovery Techniques 245 11.2.5 Bioreactors 245 11.2.6 Combining Unit Operations and Use of By-products 245 11.3 Economic Modelling and Case Study 246 11.3.1 Techno-economic Studies 246 11.3.2 Case Study: Production of Butanol from Eucalyptus 251 11.3.2.1 Pulp Mill Case Study 251 11.3.2.2 ABE Plant 251 11.3.2.3 Approach and Assumptions for the Economic Analysis 255 11.3.2.4 Investment Cost and Energy Efficiency of the ABE Plant 256 11.3.2.5 Minimum Butanol Selling Price 259 11.3.2.6 Value Creation to Pulp Mills 262 11.4 Perspectives 263 Acknowledgements 263 References 264 12 Fuel Ethanol Production from Lignocellulosic Materials Using Recombinant Yeasts 269 Stephen R. Hughes and Marjorie A. Jones 12.1 Review of Current Fuel Ethanol Production 269 12.1.1 Technological Aspects 269 12.1.2 Commercialization of Cellulosic Ethanol 271 12.2 Evolution of Cost of Cellulosic Ethanol Production 272 12.2.1 Analysis Comparing Costs of Producing Ethanol from Corn Starch and Lignocellulosic Feedstocks 272 12.2.2 Cost Analysis by Tao et al. for Cellulosic Ethanol 274 12.3 Technological Opportunities to Reduce Cellulosic Ethanol Production Costs 277 12.4 Perspectives: Approaches to Optimize the Use of Lignocellulosic and Waste Materials as Feedstocks 279 References 281 13 Enzymes for Cellulosic Biomass Hydrolysis and Saccharification 283 Elmar M. Villota, Ziyu Dai, Yanpin Lu and Bin Yang 13.1 Introduction 283 13.2 Glycosyl Hydrolases: General Structure and Mechanism 286 13.2.1 Classification of GH 287 13.3 The Cellulase Enzyme System 289 13.3.1 Endoglucanases 290 13.3.2 Cellobiohydrolases 290 13.3.3 Beta-Glucosidases 291 13.3.4 Polysaccharide Monooxygenases and Cellobiose Dehydrogenases 292 13.3.5 Cellulases Synergy and Kinetics 293 13.4 The Hemicellulase Enzyme System 295 13.4.1 Endo-Xylanases and Beta-Xylosidases 296 13.4.2 Endo-Mannanases and Beta-Mannosidase 297 13.4.3 Other Hemicellulases and Accessory Enzymes 297 13.4.4 Hemicellulases and Complete Hydrolysis 298 13.5 Microorganisms for Biomass Hydrolysis 299 13.5.1 Diversity of Cellulolytic Microorganisms and Lifestyles 299 13.5.2 Fungi and Their Arsenal for Biomass Hydrolysis 300 13.5.3 Bacteria and Their Cellulolytic Machinery 302 13.5.3.1 The C. thermocellum Cellulosome 303 13.5.3.2 Enzyme-Microbe Synergy 305 13.5.3.3 Mechanisms of Cell Adhesion 307 13.6 Perspectives 308 Acknowledgement 309 References 309 14 Life Cycle Assessment of Biofuels and Green Commodity Chemicals 327 Mairi J. Black, Onesmus Mwabonje, Aiduan Li Borrion and Aurelia Karina Hillary 14.1 Introduction 327 14.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 328 14.3 The Origin and Principles of Life Cycle Assessment 329 14.4 Developing a Life Cycle Assessment 329 14.5 Scope of the Life Cycle Assessment: Attributional verses Consequential 331 14.6 Biofuels and Green Commodity Chemicals 332 14.7 Feedstocks for Biofuels 332 14.7.1 First Generation Biofuels 333 14.7.2 Second Generation Biofuel Feedstock 333 14.8 Conversion of Feedstock 333 14.8.1 Biochemical Processes 334 14.8.2 Thermochemical Processes 334 14.9 Supply Chain and Logistics 335 14.10 Using LCA as a Tool to Assess GHG Emissions and Other Impacts Associated with Bioethanol Production and Supply 335 14.11 Discussion on the Suitability of LCA 336 14.12 Perspectives: Moving Forward with the LCA Concept 348 References 349 Part III Hydrogen and Methane 355 15 Biotechnological Production of Fuel Hydrogen and Its Market Deployment 357 Carolina Zampol Lazaro, Emrah Sagir and Patrick C. Hallenbeck 15.1 Introduction 357 15.2 Hydrogen Production Through Dark Fermentation 358 15.2.1 Microorganisms Involved in Dark Fermentative Hydrogen Production 358 15.2.1.1 Hydrogen Production by Pure Cultures 358 15.2.1.2 Mixed Cultures and Inoculum Pre-treatments 358 15.2.1.3 Co-cultures Used for Hydrogen Production 359 15.2.2 Operational Factors Influencing Hydrogen Production 360 15.2.3 Bioreactors Used for Dark Fermentative Hydrogen Production 362 15.2.4 Substrates Used for Dark Fermentative Hydrogen Production 366 15.3 Hydrogen Production Through Photofermentation 370 15.3.1 Photo-biological Hydrogen Production by Purple Non-sulfur Bacteria 370 15.4 Hydrogen Production by Combined Systems 370 15.4.1 Hydrogen Production by Dark and Photofermentation in Co-culture 370 15.4.2 Two-Stage Dark and Photo-fermentative Hydrogen Production 373 15.4.3 Hydrogen Production by Multiple Stages (Cellulolytic, Dark Fermentative, and Phototrophic Bacteria) 377 15.4.4 Hydrogen Production by Combined Dark Fermentation and Microbial Electrolysis 379 15.5 Perspectives 379 15.5.1 Hydrogen Production Potential and Market Barriers 380 15.5.2 Hydrogen Generation Market 381 15.5.3 Microbial Hydrogen Production: Targets and Future Prospects 382 Acknowledgements 383 References 383 16 Deployment of Biogas Production Technologies in Emerging Countries 395 Guangyin Zhen, Xueqin Lu, Xiaohui Wang, Shaojuan Zheng, Jianhui Wang, Zhongxiang Zhi, Lianghu Su, Kaiqin Xu, Takuro Kobayashi, Gopalakrishnan Kumar and Youcai Zhao 16.1 Introduction 395 16.2 Types of Feedstock 397 16.2.1 Waste Activated Sludge 397 16.2.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass 398 16.2.3 Algae 401 16.2.4 Food Waste 402 16.2.5 Leafy Vegetables 403 16.2.6 Livestock Manure (Chicken, Pig and Swine Manure) 403 16.3 Pretreatment Technologies of Anaerobic Digestion Feedstocks 404 16.3.1 Acidic Pretreatment 404 16.3.2 Alkali Pretreatment 405 16.3.3 Ultrasonication 409 16.3.4 Microwave Irradiation 410 16.3.5 Ozonation 411 16.3.6 Thermal Pre-treatment Technique 412 16.3.7 Enzymatic Pre-treatment 412 16.3.8 High-pressure Homogenization 413 16.4 Full-scale Implementation Status of Anaerobic Digestion in Developing Countries 413 16.4.1 China 413 16.4.2 India 414 16.4.3 Malaysia 414 16.4.4 Vietnam 415 16.4.5 Thailand 415 16.5 Perspectives 416 References 416 17 Hydrogen Production by Algae 425 Tunc Catal and Halil Kavakli 17.1 Importance of Hydrogen Production 425 17.2 Hydrogen Producing Microorganisms 427 17.3 Hydrogen Producing Algae (Macro-Micro) Species 428 17.4 Production of Biohydrogen Through Fermentation 431 17.4.1 Biohydrogen Production 431 17.4.2 Fermentation System for Hydrogen Production 432 17.5 Technologies (Solar Algae Fuel Cell/Microbial Fuel Cell) 433 17.6 Possibility of Commercial Production of Hydrogen 434 17.7 Perspectives and Future Implications of Algae in Biotechnology 437 References 438 18 Production and Utilization of Methane Biogas as Renewable Fuel 447 Ganesh Dattatraya Saratale, Jeyapraksh Damaraja, Sutha Shobana, Rijuta Ganesh Saratale, Sivagurunathan Periyasamy, Gunagyin Zhen and Gopalakrishnan Kumar 18.1 Introduction 447 18.2 Anaerobic Digestion 448 18.3 Mechanism of Anaerobic Digestion 449 18.3.1 Theoretical Methane Biogas Production 452 18.4 Significant Factors Influencing Anaerobic Digestion 455 18.4.1 Effect of Temperature 455 18.4.2 Effect of pH 455 18.4.3 Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) and Substrate Loading Rate 456 18.4.4 Microalgae Cell Wall Composition and Degradability 456 18.5 Strategies Applied to Enhance Microalgae Methane Biogas Production 456 18.5.1 Different Pretreatment Techniques 457 18.5.2 Co-Digestion Process 457 18.6 Utilization of Methane Biogas as a Renewable Fuel 458 18.7 Perspectives 459 References 459 Part IV Perspectives 465 19 Integrated Biorefineries for the Production of Bioethanol, Biodiesel, and Other Commodity Chemicals 467 Pedro F Souza Filho and Mohammad J Taherzadeh 19.1 Introduction 467 19.2 Types of Biorefineries 468 19.2.1 Flexibility 468 19.2.1.1 Lignocellulosic Feedstock (LCF) Biorefinery 469 19.2.1.2 Whole Crop Biorefinery 469 19.2.1.3 Green Biorefinery 470 19.2.2 Feedstock 470 19.3 Biorefinery Platforms 471 19.4 Integrated Biorefineries 472 19.5 Coproducts 475 19.5.1 Four Carbon 1,4-Diacids 475 19.5.2 2,5-Furandicarboxylic Acid (FDA) and 5-Hydroximethilfurfural (HMF) 476 19.5.3 3-Hydroxypropionic Acid (3-HP) 477 19.5.4 Aspartic Acid 477 19.5.5 Glucaric Acid 477 19.5.6 Glutamic Acid 478 19.5.7 Itaconic Acid 478 19.5.8 Levulinic Acid 478 19.5.9 3-Hydroxybutyrolactone (HBL) 478 19.5.10 Glycerol 479 19.5.11 Sorbitol 479 19.5.12 Xylitol 479 19.5.13 Lactic Acid 479 19.5.14 Biohydrocarbons 479 19.5.15 Lignin 480 19.6 Integrating Ethanol and Biodiesel Refineries 480 19.7 Economical Aspects 482 19.8 Perspectives 484 References 484 20 Lignocellulosic Crops as Sustainable Raw Materials for Bioenergy 489 Emiliano Maletta and Carlos Hernandez Diaz-Ambrona 20.1 Introduction 489 20.2 Major Lignocellulosic Industrial Crops 492 20.2.1 Annual Crops 493 20.2.1.1 Cellulosic Annual Grasses 493 20.2.1.2 Fibre and Oil Crops 493 20.2.2 Perennials 494 20.2.2.1 Herbaceous Biomass Crops 494 20.2.2.2 Woody Crops 497 20.3 Social, Economic and Environmental Aspects in Sustainability Criteria 498 20.3.1 Annual versus Perennial Options 499 20.3.2 Soil Issues 500 20.3.3 Biodiversity Issues 501 20.4 Processing Alternatives for Lignocellulosic Bioenergy Crops 502 20.5 Filling the Gap: From Farm to Industry 503 20.6 Perspectives 506 References 508 21 Industrial Waste Valorization: Applications to the Case of Liquid Biofuels 515 Haibo Huang and Qing Jin 21.1 Introduction 515 21.2 Types of Industrial Waste for Biofuel Production 516 21.3 Ethanol Production 517 21.3.1 Ethanol and Its Market 517 21.3.2 Ethanol from Food Waste 518 21.3.3 Pretreatment 518 21.3.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis 519 21.3.5 Fermentation 520 21.3.6 Ethanol Production from Other Industrial Wastes 522 21.4 Butanol 523 21.4.1 Butanol and Its Market 523 21.4.2 Butanol Production from Food Waste 524 21.4.3 Butanol Production from Other Industrial Wastes 526 21.4.4 Economic Analysis of Butanol Production 526 21.5 Biodiesel 527 21.5.1 Biodiesel and Its Market 527 21.5.2 Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production 528 21.5.3 Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil with Alkali Catalysts 529 21.5.4 Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil with Acid Catalysts 529 21.5.5 Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil with Acid and Alkali Catalysts 530 21.6 Perspectives 531 References 531 22 The Environmental Impact of Pollution Prevention, Sustainable Energy Generation, and Other Sustainable Development Strategies Implemented by the Food Manufacturing Sector 539 Sandra D. Gaona, T.J. Pepping, Cheryl Keenan and Stephen C. DeVito 22.1 Introduction 539 22.2 Overview of the Food Manufacturing Industry 540 22.2.1 Production and Economic Trends 542 22.2.2 Key Players 545 22.3 Chemicals and Chemical Wastes in the Food Manufacturing Industry 545 22.3.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 546 22.3.2 Conventional Water Pollutants 546 22.3.3 Refrigerants 547 22.3.4 TRI-Reported Chemical Waste Management 548 22.3.5 Trends in TRI-Reported Chemical Waste Management 548 22.3.5.1 Trends in Releases 552 22.3.5.2 Summary of TRI Reporting 554 22.4 Pollution Prevention in Food Manufacturing 554 22.4.1 Sustainability Trends in Food Manufacturing 554 22.4.1.1 Corporate Sustainability Reports 555 22.4.1.2 Eco-Efficiency 556 22.4.2 Process and Technology Modifications 556 22.4.2.1 Energy Efficiency 556 22.4.2.2 Chemical Substitutes 557 22.4.3 Recycling 558 22.4.3.1 Packaging 558 22.4.3.2 Food Waste 558 22.4.3.3 Energy Recovery 559 22.4.4 Wastewater Treatment 559 22.4.5 Pollution Prevention Activities Reported to TRI 560 22.4.5.1 Examples of Source Reduction Activities Reported to EPA's TRI Program 561 22.4.5.2 TRI Pollution Prevention Analysis - Effectiveness of Source Reduction Activities 561 22.4.5.3 Barriers to Source Reduction 562 22.4.5.4 Summary of Pollution Prevention Activities Reported to TRI 562 22.5 Perspectives 563 22.5.1 Next Steps 564 Disclaimer 564 References 564 23 Financing Strategies for Sustainable Bioenergy and the Commodity Chemicals Industry 569 Praveen V. Vadlani 23.1 The Current Financing Scenario at Global Level 569 23.1.1 Recovery from 2008 Financial Crisis and Global Economic Trends 569 23.1.2 Financial Conditions at Global Level 570 23.2 Ethanol Biofuel Industry - An Overview 572 23.2.1 Ethanol Industry Market and Growth Perspective 572 23.2.2 Renewable Ethanol Industry from Grain and Cellulosic Feedstocks 572 23.2.3 Ethanol Biofuels Industry - Co-products 575 23.2.4 Ethanol Biofuels Industry - Cost and Economic Factors 576 23.3 Bio-Based Industry - Current Status and Future Potential 577 23.3.1 Emergence of Bio-Based Industry 577 23.3.2 Bio-Based Industry - Policy Landscape and Competitiveness 578 23.4 Financing and Investment Strategy for Bio-Based Industries 579 23.4.1 Financing Challenges for Firms in the New Bioeconomy 579 23.4.2 The Financing of Various Steps in the Bio-Based Processes 581 23.5 Perspectives and Sustainable Financing Approach - Change in Wall Street Mindset in the Valuation of Bio-Based Industries 583 Acknowledgements 584 References 585 24 Corporate Social Responsibility and Corporate Sustainability as Forces of Change 587 Asutosh T. Yagnik 24.1 Introduction 587 24.2 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 587 24.2.1 What Is CSR? 587 24.2.2 Conceptual Models of CSR 589 24.2.3 The History and Evolving Nature of CSR 589 24.2.3.1 The Four Eras of Early CSR 589 24.2.3.2 The Impact of Environmental Disasters and Globalization in the 1980s to 2000s 592 24.2.3.3 From the 2000s to Today: The Further Evolution of CSR and its Relationship to Brand Management 593 24.3 From CSR to Corporate Sustainability 597 24.3.1 What Is Sustainability and how Did the Phrase Come about? 597 24.3.2 Conceptual Models and Frameworks for Corporate Sustainability 598 24.3.3 CSR and Corporate Sustainability Are Not the Same Thing 598 24.3.4 Corporate Sustainability - The Future of CSR 600 24.4 Perspectives 602 24.4.1 Paradigm Shift in Corporate Sustainability Thinking 604 24.4.2 Three Key Capabilities Needed to Support Corporate Sustainability 605 References 607 25 The Industrial World in the Twenty-First Century 613 Alain A. Vertes 25.1 Introduction: Energy and Sustainability 613 25.2 Transportation in the Twenty-First Century: A Carbon Tax Story 622 25.3 Cities of Change 627 25.4 The Chemical Industry Revisited 629 25.5 Paradigm Changes in Modes of Consumption 633 25.6 International Action for Curbing the Pollution of the Atmosphere Commons: The Case of CFCs and the Ozone Layer 634 25.7 Social Activism as an Engine of Change: Requiem for a Wonderful World 635 25.8 Perspectives: A Brave New World 636 References 639 Index 649
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About the Editors xxi List of Contributors xxv Foreword xxxi Preface xxxiii Part I Structure of the Energy Business 1 1 Economic Growth and the Global Energy Demand 3 Jurgen Scheffran, Miriam Felkers and Rebecca Froese 1.1 Historical Context and Relationship Between Energy and Development 3 1.2 Conceptual Framework for Pathways of Energy Use 6 1.3 World Population Trends and Prospects 7 1.4 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Economic Growth 8 1.5 Global Energy Development 11 1.6 Global Emissions of Greenhouse Gases 14 1.7 Linkages Between Kaya Factors 16 1.7.1 Per Capita Energy and Growth 16 1.7.2 Energy Demand and Economic Production 17 1.7.2.1 Energy as a Production Factor 18 1.7.2.2 Empirical Results 19 1.7.3 Emission-Related Factors 23 1.7.4 Energy-Related Impacts 25 1.7.5 Relative Comparison of the Kaya Factors 26 1.8 Development of Energy Investment 28 1.9 Conditions for Energy Transition and Decarbonization 31 1.9.1 Targets and Pathways of Climate Policy 31 1.9.2 Strategies of Implementation 33 1.9.3 Integrated Assessment and Decision-Making in Transition Processes 35 1.10 Perspectives 37 Acknowledgments 38 References 38 2 The Energy Mix in Japan Post-Fukushima 45 Seiji Nakagame 2.1 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions by Japan 45 2.2 Energy Dependence 46 2.3 The Energy Policy of Japan 48 2.4 Paris Agreement 49 2.5 Prospective Energy Demand 50 2.6 Improvement in Energy Efficiency 50 2.7 Reduction of CO2 Emission in Electric Generation 51 2.8 Development of New Technologies for Decreasing GHG Emissions 51 2.9 Production and Use of Bioethanol in Japan 51 2.10 Production and Use of Hydrocarbons in Japan 52 2.11 Production and Use of Hydrogen in Japan 52 2.12 Contributions of the Japanese Government to Fundamental Research and Development 52 2.13 Perspectives 53 References 53 3 Green Energy in Africa, Asia, and South America 57 Daniel de Castro Assumpcao, Marcelo Hamaguchi, Jose Dilcio Rocha and Adriano P. Mariano 3.1 Introduction 57 3.2 South America 58 3.2.1 Current Status 58 3.2.2 Commercial Deployment and Challenges 60 3.2.3 Perspectives on South America 61 3.3 Africa 62 3.3.1 Current Status 62 3.3.2 Commercial Deployment and Challenges 64 3.3.3 Perspectives on Africa 65 3.4 Southeast Asia 66 3.4.1 Current Status 66 3.4.2 Commercial Deployment and Challenges 67 3.4.3 Perspectives on South East Asia 69 3.5 China 69 3.5.1 Current Status 69 3.5.2 Commercial Deployment and Challenges 71 3.5.3 Perspectives on China 71 3.6 Global Perspectives 72 References 72 4 The Development of Solar Energy Generation Technologies and Global Production Capabilities 77 F. John Hay and N. Ianno 4.1 Introduction 77 4.2 Sunlight and Photosynthesis 78 4.2.1 Photosynthetic Efficiency 79 4.2.2 Actual Efficiencies 79 4.3 Photovoltaic Devices 79 4.4 Overview of Solar Photovoltaic Applications 82 4.5 Perspectives 83 References 84 5 Recent Trends, Opportunities and Challenges of Sustainable Aviation Fuel 85 Libing Zhang, Terri L. Butler and Bin Yang 5.1 Introduction 85 5.2 Overview of the Jet Fuel Market 86 5.2.1 Driving Force of Growing Biojet Fuel Opportunities 86 5.2.2 Biojet Fuel Types and Specifications 88 5.3 Assessment of Environmental Policy and Economic Factors Affecting the Aviation Industry 93 5.3.1 Momentum Building of International Carbon Emission Regulations 94 5.3.2 Increasing Activities to Address the Carbon Emission Control 95 5.3.3 New Technologies and Aviation Operation Improvement 97 5.4 Current Activities Around Biojet in the Aviation Industry 98 5.4.1 Alternative Jet Fuel Deployment and Use 98 5.4.2 Test Flights of Commercial Airlines 100 5.5 Challenges of Future Biojet Fuel Development 100 5.6 Perspectives 104 Acknowledgments 105 References 105 6 The Environmental Impact of Pollution Prevention and Other Sustainable Development Strategies Implemented by the Automotive Manufacturing Industry 111 Sandra D. Gaona, Cheryl Keenan, Cyril Vallet, Lawrence Reichle and Stephen C. DeVito 6.1 Introduction 111 6.2 Overview of the Automotive Manufacturing Industry 112 6.2.1 History 112 6.2.2 Production and Economic Trends 112 6.2.3 Key Players 113 6.3 Chemicals and Chemical Waste in Automotive Manufacturing 114 6.3.1 Emissions from Fuel Combustion 114 6.3.1.1 Automobile Manufacturing GHG Emissions 114 6.3.1.2 Automobile Operation GHG Emissions 114 6.3.2 TRI-Reported Chemical Waste Management 115 6.3.2.1 US EPA Toxics Release Inventory 116 6.3.2.2 Trends in TRI-Reported Chemical Waste Management 117 6.3.2.3 Waste Management Methods 119 6.3.2.4 Trends in Releases 119 6.3.2.5 Automotive Manufacturing vs. All Other Manufacturing Sectors 120 6.4 Pollution Prevention in Automotive Manufacturing 121 6.4.1 Sustainability Trends in Automotive Manufacturing 121 6.4.1.1 Corporate Sustainability Reports 122 6.4.1.2 Eco-Efficiency 122 6.4.1.3 Process and Technology Modifications 123 6.4.1.4 Safer, Environmentally Friendly Alternative Materials 124 6.4.1.5 Recycling of Metals and Solvents 125 6.4.1.6 Metal Scrap and Waste 125 6.4.1.7 Fluids and Solvents 125 6.4.1.8 End-of-Life Vehicles (ELVs) 126 6.4.1.9 Fuel Economy 126 6.4.2 Pollution Prevention Activities Reported to TRI 126 6.4.2.1 Examples of Source Reduction Activities Reported to TRI 129 6.4.2.2 TRI Pollution Prevention Analysis - Effectiveness of Source Reduction Activities 129 6.4.2.3 Barriers to Source Reduction 129 6.5 Perspectives 131 6.5.1 Summary 131 6.5.2 Potential Pollution Prevention Opportunities 133 Disclaimer 134 References 134 7 The Global Demand for Biofuels and Biotechnology-Derived Commodity Chemicals: Technologies, Markets, and Challenges 137 Stephen R. Hughes and Marjorie A. Jones 7.1 Introduction 137 7.2 Overview of Global Energy Demand 137 7.3 Petroleum Demand and Petroleum Products for Potential Replacement by Bioproducts 140 7.4 Role of Biofuels and Biobased Chemicals in Renewable Energy Demand 143 7.5 Achieving Petroleum Replacement with Biobased Fuels and Chemicals 145 7.6 Projections of Global Demand for Biobased Fuels and Chemicals 149 7.7 Potential Impacts on Price of Transportation Fuels and Chemicals Assuming Various Scenarios of World Economic Growth 151 7.8 Projection of Energy-Related CO2 Emissions With or Without Remediation Technology 151 7.9 Government Impact on Demand for Biofuels and Biobased Chemicals 152 7.10 Perspectives 154 References 155 Part II Chemicals and Transportation Fuels from Biomass 157 8 Sustainable Platform Chemicals from Biomass 159 Ankita Juneja and Vijay Singh 8.1 Introduction 159 8.2 2-Carbon 161 8.2.1 Glycolic Acid 161 8.3 3-Carbon 163 8.3.1 Propionic Acid 163 8.3.2 Pyruvic Acid 163 8.3.3 Lactic Acid 166 8.4 4-Carbon 166 8.4.1 Butyric Acid 166 8.4.2 Succinic Acid 167 8.4.3 Malic Acid 168 8.4.4 Putrescine 168 8.5 5-Carbon 169 8.5.1 Itaconic Acid 169 8.5.2 Xylitol 170 8.5.3 Glutaconic Acid and Glutaric Acid 171 8.6 6-Carbon 171 8.6.1 Adipic Acid 171 8.6.2 Muconic Acid 172 8.6.3 Citric Acid 173 8.6.4 Glucaric Acid 173 8.7 Perspectives 174 References 175 9 Biofuels from Microalgae and Seaweeds: Potentials of Industrial Scale Production 185 Licheng Peng, Freeman Lan and Christopher Q. Lan 9.1 Introduction 185 9.2 Biofuels 186 9.2.1 Types of Biofuels 187 9.2.1.1 Biodiesel 187 9.2.1.2 Bioethanol 187 9.2.1.3 Bio-oils and Bio-syngas 188 9.2.1.4 Bio-hydrogen 188 9.2.2 Feedstock of Biofuel Production Based on Plants 188 9.2.2.1 Terrestrial Plants 190 9.2.2.2 Aquatic Plants - Algae 190 9.3 Biofuels from Microalgae and Seaweeds 191 9.3.1 Biofuels from Microalgae 192 9.3.2 Biofuels from Macroalgae (i.e. Seaweeds) 192 9.3.3 Advantages of Algae as the Feedstock of Biofuels 193 9.4 Recent Developments in Algae Processing Technologies 195 9.4.1 Harvesting and Dewatering 195 9.4.2 Extraction Approaches 196 9.4.3 Conversion to Biofuels 198 9.5 Potential for Industrial Scale Production 200 9.5.1 Role of Biofuels in Energy Supply and Environmental Protection 200 9.5.2 Biofuel Demand and Supporting Policies 201 9.5.3 Routes to Cost-Effective Alga-Based Biofuels 202 9.5.3.1 Optimization of Cultivation Processes 202 9.5.3.2 Achieve High Biomass Concentration of Algae 204 9.5.3.3 Co-producing Value-Added Products to Offset Overall Costs 204 9.5.3.4 Combining Alga-Based Biofuel Production with Environment Protection 204 9.6 Progresses in the Commercial Production of Alga-Based Biofuels 205 9.7 Perspectives 209 References 210 10 Advanced Fermentation Technologies: Conversion of Biomass to Ethanol by Organisms Other than Yeasts, a Case for Escherichia coli 219 K. T. Shanmugam, Lorraine P. Yomano, Sean W. York and Lonnie O. Ingram 10.1 Introduction 219 10.2 Zymomonas mobilis 222 10.3 Escherichia coli 223 10.4 Osmotic Stress of High Sugar Concentration 227 10.5 Inhibitor-Tolerant Ethanologenic E. coli 227 10.6 Engineering Bacterial Biocatalysts Other than E. coli for the Production of Ethanol Using the PDC/ADH Pathway 229 10.7 Ethanol Production by Non-PDC Pathways 230 10.8 Partition of Carbon at the Pyruvate Node 231 10.9 Other Metabolic Pathways that Contribute to Ethanol Production 231 10.10 Perspectives 232 Acknowledgements 232 References 233 11 Clostridia and Process Engineering for Energy Generation 239 Adriano P. Mariano, Danilo S. Braz, Henrique C. A. Venturelli and Nasib Qureshi 11.1 Introduction 239 11.2 Recent Technological Advances 241 11.2.1 Micro-organisms 241 11.2.2 Novel Substrates 243 11.2.3 Biomass Pretreatment 244 11.2.4 Novel Product Recovery Techniques 245 11.2.5 Bioreactors 245 11.2.6 Combining Unit Operations and Use of By-products 245 11.3 Economic Modelling and Case Study 246 11.3.1 Techno-economic Studies 246 11.3.2 Case Study: Production of Butanol from Eucalyptus 251 11.3.2.1 Pulp Mill Case Study 251 11.3.2.2 ABE Plant 251 11.3.2.3 Approach and Assumptions for the Economic Analysis 255 11.3.2.4 Investment Cost and Energy Efficiency of the ABE Plant 256 11.3.2.5 Minimum Butanol Selling Price 259 11.3.2.6 Value Creation to Pulp Mills 262 11.4 Perspectives 263 Acknowledgements 263 References 264 12 Fuel Ethanol Production from Lignocellulosic Materials Using Recombinant Yeasts 269 Stephen R. Hughes and Marjorie A. Jones 12.1 Review of Current Fuel Ethanol Production 269 12.1.1 Technological Aspects 269 12.1.2 Commercialization of Cellulosic Ethanol 271 12.2 Evolution of Cost of Cellulosic Ethanol Production 272 12.2.1 Analysis Comparing Costs of Producing Ethanol from Corn Starch and Lignocellulosic Feedstocks 272 12.2.2 Cost Analysis by Tao et al. for Cellulosic Ethanol 274 12.3 Technological Opportunities to Reduce Cellulosic Ethanol Production Costs 277 12.4 Perspectives: Approaches to Optimize the Use of Lignocellulosic and Waste Materials as Feedstocks 279 References 281 13 Enzymes for Cellulosic Biomass Hydrolysis and Saccharification 283 Elmar M. Villota, Ziyu Dai, Yanpin Lu and Bin Yang 13.1 Introduction 283 13.2 Glycosyl Hydrolases: General Structure and Mechanism 286 13.2.1 Classification of GH 287 13.3 The Cellulase Enzyme System 289 13.3.1 Endoglucanases 290 13.3.2 Cellobiohydrolases 290 13.3.3 Beta-Glucosidases 291 13.3.4 Polysaccharide Monooxygenases and Cellobiose Dehydrogenases 292 13.3.5 Cellulases Synergy and Kinetics 293 13.4 The Hemicellulase Enzyme System 295 13.4.1 Endo-Xylanases and Beta-Xylosidases 296 13.4.2 Endo-Mannanases and Beta-Mannosidase 297 13.4.3 Other Hemicellulases and Accessory Enzymes 297 13.4.4 Hemicellulases and Complete Hydrolysis 298 13.5 Microorganisms for Biomass Hydrolysis 299 13.5.1 Diversity of Cellulolytic Microorganisms and Lifestyles 299 13.5.2 Fungi and Their Arsenal for Biomass Hydrolysis 300 13.5.3 Bacteria and Their Cellulolytic Machinery 302 13.5.3.1 The C. thermocellum Cellulosome 303 13.5.3.2 Enzyme-Microbe Synergy 305 13.5.3.3 Mechanisms of Cell Adhesion 307 13.6 Perspectives 308 Acknowledgement 309 References 309 14 Life Cycle Assessment of Biofuels and Green Commodity Chemicals 327 Mairi J. Black, Onesmus Mwabonje, Aiduan Li Borrion and Aurelia Karina Hillary 14.1 Introduction 327 14.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 328 14.3 The Origin and Principles of Life Cycle Assessment 329 14.4 Developing a Life Cycle Assessment 329 14.5 Scope of the Life Cycle Assessment: Attributional verses Consequential 331 14.6 Biofuels and Green Commodity Chemicals 332 14.7 Feedstocks for Biofuels 332 14.7.1 First Generation Biofuels 333 14.7.2 Second Generation Biofuel Feedstock 333 14.8 Conversion of Feedstock 333 14.8.1 Biochemical Processes 334 14.8.2 Thermochemical Processes 334 14.9 Supply Chain and Logistics 335 14.10 Using LCA as a Tool to Assess GHG Emissions and Other Impacts Associated with Bioethanol Production and Supply 335 14.11 Discussion on the Suitability of LCA 336 14.12 Perspectives: Moving Forward with the LCA Concept 348 References 349 Part III Hydrogen and Methane 355 15 Biotechnological Production of Fuel Hydrogen and Its Market Deployment 357 Carolina Zampol Lazaro, Emrah Sagir and Patrick C. Hallenbeck 15.1 Introduction 357 15.2 Hydrogen Production Through Dark Fermentation 358 15.2.1 Microorganisms Involved in Dark Fermentative Hydrogen Production 358 15.2.1.1 Hydrogen Production by Pure Cultures 358 15.2.1.2 Mixed Cultures and Inoculum Pre-treatments 358 15.2.1.3 Co-cultures Used for Hydrogen Production 359 15.2.2 Operational Factors Influencing Hydrogen Production 360 15.2.3 Bioreactors Used for Dark Fermentative Hydrogen Production 362 15.2.4 Substrates Used for Dark Fermentative Hydrogen Production 366 15.3 Hydrogen Production Through Photofermentation 370 15.3.1 Photo-biological Hydrogen Production by Purple Non-sulfur Bacteria 370 15.4 Hydrogen Production by Combined Systems 370 15.4.1 Hydrogen Production by Dark and Photofermentation in Co-culture 370 15.4.2 Two-Stage Dark and Photo-fermentative Hydrogen Production 373 15.4.3 Hydrogen Production by Multiple Stages (Cellulolytic, Dark Fermentative, and Phototrophic Bacteria) 377 15.4.4 Hydrogen Production by Combined Dark Fermentation and Microbial Electrolysis 379 15.5 Perspectives 379 15.5.1 Hydrogen Production Potential and Market Barriers 380 15.5.2 Hydrogen Generation Market 381 15.5.3 Microbial Hydrogen Production: Targets and Future Prospects 382 Acknowledgements 383 References 383 16 Deployment of Biogas Production Technologies in Emerging Countries 395 Guangyin Zhen, Xueqin Lu, Xiaohui Wang, Shaojuan Zheng, Jianhui Wang, Zhongxiang Zhi, Lianghu Su, Kaiqin Xu, Takuro Kobayashi, Gopalakrishnan Kumar and Youcai Zhao 16.1 Introduction 395 16.2 Types of Feedstock 397 16.2.1 Waste Activated Sludge 397 16.2.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass 398 16.2.3 Algae 401 16.2.4 Food Waste 402 16.2.5 Leafy Vegetables 403 16.2.6 Livestock Manure (Chicken, Pig and Swine Manure) 403 16.3 Pretreatment Technologies of Anaerobic Digestion Feedstocks 404 16.3.1 Acidic Pretreatment 404 16.3.2 Alkali Pretreatment 405 16.3.3 Ultrasonication 409 16.3.4 Microwave Irradiation 410 16.3.5 Ozonation 411 16.3.6 Thermal Pre-treatment Technique 412 16.3.7 Enzymatic Pre-treatment 412 16.3.8 High-pressure Homogenization 413 16.4 Full-scale Implementation Status of Anaerobic Digestion in Developing Countries 413 16.4.1 China 413 16.4.2 India 414 16.4.3 Malaysia 414 16.4.4 Vietnam 415 16.4.5 Thailand 415 16.5 Perspectives 416 References 416 17 Hydrogen Production by Algae 425 Tunc Catal and Halil Kavakli 17.1 Importance of Hydrogen Production 425 17.2 Hydrogen Producing Microorganisms 427 17.3 Hydrogen Producing Algae (Macro-Micro) Species 428 17.4 Production of Biohydrogen Through Fermentation 431 17.4.1 Biohydrogen Production 431 17.4.2 Fermentation System for Hydrogen Production 432 17.5 Technologies (Solar Algae Fuel Cell/Microbial Fuel Cell) 433 17.6 Possibility of Commercial Production of Hydrogen 434 17.7 Perspectives and Future Implications of Algae in Biotechnology 437 References 438 18 Production and Utilization of Methane Biogas as Renewable Fuel 447 Ganesh Dattatraya Saratale, Jeyapraksh Damaraja, Sutha Shobana, Rijuta Ganesh Saratale, Sivagurunathan Periyasamy, Gunagyin Zhen and Gopalakrishnan Kumar 18.1 Introduction 447 18.2 Anaerobic Digestion 448 18.3 Mechanism of Anaerobic Digestion 449 18.3.1 Theoretical Methane Biogas Production 452 18.4 Significant Factors Influencing Anaerobic Digestion 455 18.4.1 Effect of Temperature 455 18.4.2 Effect of pH 455 18.4.3 Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) and Substrate Loading Rate 456 18.4.4 Microalgae Cell Wall Composition and Degradability 456 18.5 Strategies Applied to Enhance Microalgae Methane Biogas Production 456 18.5.1 Different Pretreatment Techniques 457 18.5.2 Co-Digestion Process 457 18.6 Utilization of Methane Biogas as a Renewable Fuel 458 18.7 Perspectives 459 References 459 Part IV Perspectives 465 19 Integrated Biorefineries for the Production of Bioethanol, Biodiesel, and Other Commodity Chemicals 467 Pedro F Souza Filho and Mohammad J Taherzadeh 19.1 Introduction 467 19.2 Types of Biorefineries 468 19.2.1 Flexibility 468 19.2.1.1 Lignocellulosic Feedstock (LCF) Biorefinery 469 19.2.1.2 Whole Crop Biorefinery 469 19.2.1.3 Green Biorefinery 470 19.2.2 Feedstock 470 19.3 Biorefinery Platforms 471 19.4 Integrated Biorefineries 472 19.5 Coproducts 475 19.5.1 Four Carbon 1,4-Diacids 475 19.5.2 2,5-Furandicarboxylic Acid (FDA) and 5-Hydroximethilfurfural (HMF) 476 19.5.3 3-Hydroxypropionic Acid (3-HP) 477 19.5.4 Aspartic Acid 477 19.5.5 Glucaric Acid 477 19.5.6 Glutamic Acid 478 19.5.7 Itaconic Acid 478 19.5.8 Levulinic Acid 478 19.5.9 3-Hydroxybutyrolactone (HBL) 478 19.5.10 Glycerol 479 19.5.11 Sorbitol 479 19.5.12 Xylitol 479 19.5.13 Lactic Acid 479 19.5.14 Biohydrocarbons 479 19.5.15 Lignin 480 19.6 Integrating Ethanol and Biodiesel Refineries 480 19.7 Economical Aspects 482 19.8 Perspectives 484 References 484 20 Lignocellulosic Crops as Sustainable Raw Materials for Bioenergy 489 Emiliano Maletta and Carlos Hernandez Diaz-Ambrona 20.1 Introduction 489 20.2 Major Lignocellulosic Industrial Crops 492 20.2.1 Annual Crops 493 20.2.1.1 Cellulosic Annual Grasses 493 20.2.1.2 Fibre and Oil Crops 493 20.2.2 Perennials 494 20.2.2.1 Herbaceous Biomass Crops 494 20.2.2.2 Woody Crops 497 20.3 Social, Economic and Environmental Aspects in Sustainability Criteria 498 20.3.1 Annual versus Perennial Options 499 20.3.2 Soil Issues 500 20.3.3 Biodiversity Issues 501 20.4 Processing Alternatives for Lignocellulosic Bioenergy Crops 502 20.5 Filling the Gap: From Farm to Industry 503 20.6 Perspectives 506 References 508 21 Industrial Waste Valorization: Applications to the Case of Liquid Biofuels 515 Haibo Huang and Qing Jin 21.1 Introduction 515 21.2 Types of Industrial Waste for Biofuel Production 516 21.3 Ethanol Production 517 21.3.1 Ethanol and Its Market 517 21.3.2 Ethanol from Food Waste 518 21.3.3 Pretreatment 518 21.3.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis 519 21.3.5 Fermentation 520 21.3.6 Ethanol Production from Other Industrial Wastes 522 21.4 Butanol 523 21.4.1 Butanol and Its Market 523 21.4.2 Butanol Production from Food Waste 524 21.4.3 Butanol Production from Other Industrial Wastes 526 21.4.4 Economic Analysis of Butanol Production 526 21.5 Biodiesel 527 21.5.1 Biodiesel and Its Market 527 21.5.2 Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production 528 21.5.3 Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil with Alkali Catalysts 529 21.5.4 Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil with Acid Catalysts 529 21.5.5 Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil with Acid and Alkali Catalysts 530 21.6 Perspectives 531 References 531 22 The Environmental Impact of Pollution Prevention, Sustainable Energy Generation, and Other Sustainable Development Strategies Implemented by the Food Manufacturing Sector 539 Sandra D. Gaona, T.J. Pepping, Cheryl Keenan and Stephen C. DeVito 22.1 Introduction 539 22.2 Overview of the Food Manufacturing Industry 540 22.2.1 Production and Economic Trends 542 22.2.2 Key Players 545 22.3 Chemicals and Chemical Wastes in the Food Manufacturing Industry 545 22.3.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 546 22.3.2 Conventional Water Pollutants 546 22.3.3 Refrigerants 547 22.3.4 TRI-Reported Chemical Waste Management 548 22.3.5 Trends in TRI-Reported Chemical Waste Management 548 22.3.5.1 Trends in Releases 552 22.3.5.2 Summary of TRI Reporting 554 22.4 Pollution Prevention in Food Manufacturing 554 22.4.1 Sustainability Trends in Food Manufacturing 554 22.4.1.1 Corporate Sustainability Reports 555 22.4.1.2 Eco-Efficiency 556 22.4.2 Process and Technology Modifications 556 22.4.2.1 Energy Efficiency 556 22.4.2.2 Chemical Substitutes 557 22.4.3 Recycling 558 22.4.3.1 Packaging 558 22.4.3.2 Food Waste 558 22.4.3.3 Energy Recovery 559 22.4.4 Wastewater Treatment 559 22.4.5 Pollution Prevention Activities Reported to TRI 560 22.4.5.1 Examples of Source Reduction Activities Reported to EPA's TRI Program 561 22.4.5.2 TRI Pollution Prevention Analysis - Effectiveness of Source Reduction Activities 561 22.4.5.3 Barriers to Source Reduction 562 22.4.5.4 Summary of Pollution Prevention Activities Reported to TRI 562 22.5 Perspectives 563 22.5.1 Next Steps 564 Disclaimer 564 References 564 23 Financing Strategies for Sustainable Bioenergy and the Commodity Chemicals Industry 569 Praveen V. Vadlani 23.1 The Current Financing Scenario at Global Level 569 23.1.1 Recovery from 2008 Financial Crisis and Global Economic Trends 569 23.1.2 Financial Conditions at Global Level 570 23.2 Ethanol Biofuel Industry - An Overview 572 23.2.1 Ethanol Industry Market and Growth Perspective 572 23.2.2 Renewable Ethanol Industry from Grain and Cellulosic Feedstocks 572 23.2.3 Ethanol Biofuels Industry - Co-products 575 23.2.4 Ethanol Biofuels Industry - Cost and Economic Factors 576 23.3 Bio-Based Industry - Current Status and Future Potential 577 23.3.1 Emergence of Bio-Based Industry 577 23.3.2 Bio-Based Industry - Policy Landscape and Competitiveness 578 23.4 Financing and Investment Strategy for Bio-Based Industries 579 23.4.1 Financing Challenges for Firms in the New Bioeconomy 579 23.4.2 The Financing of Various Steps in the Bio-Based Processes 581 23.5 Perspectives and Sustainable Financing Approach - Change in Wall Street Mindset in the Valuation of Bio-Based Industries 583 Acknowledgements 584 References 585 24 Corporate Social Responsibility and Corporate Sustainability as Forces of Change 587 Asutosh T. Yagnik 24.1 Introduction 587 24.2 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 587 24.2.1 What Is CSR? 587 24.2.2 Conceptual Models of CSR 589 24.2.3 The History and Evolving Nature of CSR 589 24.2.3.1 The Four Eras of Early CSR 589 24.2.3.2 The Impact of Environmental Disasters and Globalization in the 1980s to 2000s 592 24.2.3.3 From the 2000s to Today: The Further Evolution of CSR and its Relationship to Brand Management 593 24.3 From CSR to Corporate Sustainability 597 24.3.1 What Is Sustainability and how Did the Phrase Come about? 597 24.3.2 Conceptual Models and Frameworks for Corporate Sustainability 598 24.3.3 CSR and Corporate Sustainability Are Not the Same Thing 598 24.3.4 Corporate Sustainability - The Future of CSR 600 24.4 Perspectives 602 24.4.1 Paradigm Shift in Corporate Sustainability Thinking 604 24.4.2 Three Key Capabilities Needed to Support Corporate Sustainability 605 References 607 25 The Industrial World in the Twenty-First Century 613 Alain A. Vertes 25.1 Introduction: Energy and Sustainability 613 25.2 Transportation in the Twenty-First Century: A Carbon Tax Story 622 25.3 Cities of Change 627 25.4 The Chemical Industry Revisited 629 25.5 Paradigm Changes in Modes of Consumption 633 25.6 International Action for Curbing the Pollution of the Atmosphere Commons: The Case of CFCs and the Ozone Layer 634 25.7 Social Activism as an Engine of Change: Requiem for a Wonderful World 635 25.8 Perspectives: A Brave New World 636 References 639 Index 649
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