Ecology of North America

Foreword viii Preface ix Acknowledgments xi 1 Introduction 1 A brief overview of ecology 1 The ecosystem 2 Abiotic limits 3 Climate and topography 4 Soils and soil profiles 4 Biotic community 6 Community succession 6 Plant succession: from pioneer to climax 6 Primary and secondary succession 6 Succession and species abundance 7 The biome concept 7 Biodiversity 7 The species richness gradient 8 Biodiversity hotspots 8 Patterns of distribution 9 Continental patterns 9 Geographical and ecological distribution 10 Some ecological concepts 10 Niches 10 Ecological equivalents 12 Bergmann s rule 12 Allen s rule 13 Readings and references 14 2 Tundra 17 Climatic and glacial influences 17 Soils and geological influences 17 Permafrost 18 Patterned ground 18 Eskers and tundra wildlife 20 Glacial refugia 21 Features and adaptations 21 Plant adaptations to harsh conditions 21 Plant growth and reproduction 22 Decomposition and soil nutrients 23 Some animal adaptations 23 Major vegetative communities 24 Shrub tundra 25 Dwarf birch heath 25 Cottongrass heath 25 Fellfields 25 Invertebrates and tundra ecology 25 Selected tundra mammals 26 Lemmings 26 Arctic ground squirrels 27 Arctic foxes 28 Barren ]ground caribou 28 Selected tundra birds 29 Gyrfalcons 29 Snowy owl 30 Ross goose 30 Highlights 31 Absentees: amphibians and reptiles 31 Lichens and reindeer moss 31 Snow goose eat outs 32 Alpine Tundra 33 Fragile Tundra 34 Impacts of human activity 34 Global warming 35 Readings and references 36 3 Boreal Forest 41 Climatic boundaries and soils 41 Features and adaptations 42 Plant adaptations 42 Animal adaptations 42 Frequent fires 42 Niches in the Boreal Forest 43 Selected biotic communities 44 Tree line and forest tundra 44 Muskeg 46 Coniferous swamps 46 Comparative ecology of lakes 46 Appalachian Extension 48 Mountain balds 48 Highlights 49 The 10 ]year cycle 49 Wolves and moose 50 A wealth of salamanders 52 Red squirrels 53 Ecological challenges 54 Acid rain 54 Spruce budworm and DDT 55 Balsam woolly adelgid 55 The Boreal Forest Agreement 56 Readings and references 57 4 Eastern Deciduous Forest 61 Climatic boundaries and soils 61 Features and adaptations 61 The forest primeval 63 The layered forest 63 Autumn leaves 64 Ground and leaf litter 64 Mast 65 Biotic associations 66 Northern hardwoods conifer forests 66 Beech Maple Basswood 67 Mesophytic forest 68 Oak Hickory 69 Mississippi alluvial plain 70 Southern Mixed Forest 70 Some associated communities 71 Longleaf pine forests 71 New Jersey Pine Barrens 73 Carolina bays 74 Highlights 75 Acorns and blue jays 75 Deer yards 75 Kirtland s warblers and fire 76 Franklin s lost tree 77 Cicadas: buzz in the forest 77 Ecological challenges 78 Declines of neotropical migrants 78 Forest destruction by exotic organisms 80 Reintroduction of red wolves 81 Readings and references 82 5 Grasslands: Plains and Prairies 89 Major associations 89 Tallgrass prairie 89 Midgrass prairie 90 Shortgrass prairie 90 Transition zones 93 Aspen parklands 93 Cross Timbers 96 Western transition 96 Features and adaptations 97 Seasonal grasses 97 Soils 99 Role of fire 101 Prairie streams 101 Prairie wetlands and waterfowl 102 Pleistocene extinctions 103 Selected prairie mammals 104 Bison 104 Prairie dogs 104 Pronghorns 106 Selected prairie birds 106 Burrowing owls 106 Prairie chickens 107 Highlights 108 Riparian forests 108 The Platte River 108 Nebraska Sandhills 109 Ants 109 Isolation and contact on the plains 110 Grassland settlement 110 Prairie preservation 111 Readings and references 113 6 Regional Grasslands and Related Areas 120 Regional associations 120 Palouse prairie 120 California Annual Grasslands 122 Southwestern desert grasslands 124 Edwards Plateau 126 Tamaulipan Mezquital 127 Highlights 129 Rodents and vegetation 129 Channeled Scablands 130 Snake River Birds of Prey Conservation Area 130 Mima mounds 131 Desertification 132 Readings and references 132 7 Deserts 136 Physical geography 136 Why deserts are dry 136 Desert mountains and bajadas 138 Ancient lakes 138 Features and adaptations 139 Desert soils and surfaces 139 Plant adaptations 140 Animal adaptations 141 The major deserts 144 Chihuahuan Desert 144 Sonoran Desert 145 Mojave Desert 147 Great Basin Desert 149 Highlights 150 Nurse trees 150 Trees for desert woodpeckers 151 Boojums and elephants: unique trees 153 Yucca moths 154 Desert fishes 154 Realm of reptiles 155 Of soils and mice 156 Deserts and predators 157 Pygmies of the sagebrush steppe 158 Desert quail rainfall and vitamin A 159 Sailing stones 159 Wheeled threats to deserts 159 Readings and references 160 8 Chaparral and Pinyon ]Juniper Woodlands 167 Features and adaptations of chaparral 168 Coastal (California) chaparral 171 Chamise chaparral 171 Manzanita chaparral 171 Ceanothus chaparral 171 Other chaparral communities 171 Interior (Arizona) chaparral 172 Pinyon ]juniper woodlands 172 Distribution and ecology 172 Human uses 173 Chaparral and fire 173 Water ]repellant soils 173 Post ]fire vegetation 174 Wildlife and chaparral fires 174 Highlights 174 Allelopathy in chaparral 174 Animal associates in coastal chaparral 175 Lizards and burned chaparral 175 Pinyon jays 176 Human influences 176 Readings and references 176 9 Montane Forests 180 Features and adaptations 180 Montane Forest zones 181 Lower montane zone 181 Upper montane zone 181 Subalpine zone 182 Associated habitats 183 Mountain parks and meadows 183 Black Hills 185 Redwoods and sequoias 186 Bristlecone pine forest 188 Fire in montane forests 190 Highlights 192 Western chipmunks and competitive exclusion 192 Squirrels bears and pine cones 194 Sky islands in Arizona 195 Monarchs in winter 196 Bears and moths 196 Readings and references 198 10 Temperate Rain Forest 203 What is old ]growth forest? 203 Features and adaptations 204 Valleys of rain forest 204 Epiphytes canopy roots and scuzz 206 More about logs 207 Succession on glacial till 208 Highlights 209 Bears salmon and forest enrichment 209 A seabird in the forest 212 Some small mammals and their ecology 213 Banana slugs 213 Pacific yew 214 Giant salamanders and other amphibians 214 Mount St Helens 215 Ecological controversy 217 Readings and references 218 11 Coastal Environments 223 Currents and climates 223 Features and adaptations 224 Rocky seashores and tidal pools 224 Sandy seashores 225 Chesapeake Bay 227 Mother Lagoon 228 Submergent communities 230 Seagrass meadows 230 Forests in the ocean 232 Oyster reefs 233 Emergent communities 235 Atlantic tidal marshes 235 Marshes of the Gulf Coast 236 Mangrove islands and thickets 238 Some associated communities 239 Barrier islands 239 Coral reefs 241 Maritime forests 243 Highlights 243 Synchrony at Delaware Bay 243 Waterbird colonies 245 A whale of a success 247 Ecological challenges 248 Natural disturbances 248 Sea ]level rise 250 Readings and references 251 12 A Selection of Special Environments 259 The Grand Canyon 259 Caves 262 Arctic ice cap 265 Niagara Escarpment 267 The Father of Waters 268 The Everglades 271 Fossil Lagerstatten: Windows into North America s ecological past 275 Burgess Shale 275 La Brea tar pits 277 The Florida Keys 278 The Great Lakes 280 Habitat highlights 282 Rivers of ice 282 Hot springs and geysers 283 Forest in the clouds 284 Granite outcrops and inselbergs 285 Palm forest 285 Mineral licks 286 Bogs and their carnivorous plants 287 Readings and references 288 Appendix 296 Glossary 309 Index 321

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